Lab: Model of a working Limb Photos & Video

Below are all photos of the items i used to compose the workable Limb and what they represent.

These images show the finished suppose to be a leg.


You can see the muscle in parts of the leg where it is showing "pinapple"

This is a movie showing how the bread "leg" is able to move and function like a normal knee joint.

Lab Write-Up

1. What is the electrode measuring?An electrode measuring system comprising a measuring electrode (1) and a seat (2) co-operating with the same during the measurement, the measuring electrode comprising one or more electrode surfaces .
2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments? Because they are the easiest to work with and their cells work the best under the uv light.
3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?Sensory neurones (neurons) are unipolar neuron nerve cells within the nervous system responsible for converting external stimuli from the organism's environment into internal electrical motor reflex loops and several forms of involuntary behavior, including pain avoidance. In vertebrates, the term motor neuron (or motoneuron) classically applies to neurons located in the central nervous system (CNS) that project their axons outside the CNS and directly or indirectly control muscles.
4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? No i do not think that the leech is in pain. What is pain? PAIN is when you feel discomfort in your body due to either aches and pains or surgery.
5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab? It was very interesting to see how the cells changed under the uv light, and also i liked hot it walked yout through step by step.
6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab? No i really liked this lab it actually made u feel like you were in class.

Leech Lab Photos

This Photo is a picture of the dyed cell after putting the dye in it and looking at it under the uv light.

This is another photo of a different cell while dyed and viewed under the uv light.

This was the 2nd step in the leech lab. I had to cut open the leech and pin it open

This is a close up of the the cells inside the leech.

CH. 13 & 14 Review

CHAPTER 13& 14 Review

Chapter 13 Nervous System

13.1 Overview of the Nervous System
Nervous tissue is composed of two main cell types: neurons and glial cells. Neurons transmit nerve messages. Glial cells are in direct contact with neurons and often surround them. It s divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. It has three functions, reception of input, integration of data, and generates motor output. Nervous Tissue contains two types of cells, neurons and neuroglia. These two transmit nerve impulses and nourish and support the neurons. The neuron Structure is highly specialized cells that transmit impulses within animals to cause a change in a target cell such as a muscle effectors cell or glandular cell. The cell body of a neuron, called the soma, contains the cell nucleus and the majority of the cytoplasm inclusions and organelles. Radial extensions of the soma cell membrane, called dendrites, extend to other neurons and form the interface where impulses are transmitted from neuron to neuron. One long extension of the soma, called the axon, is the primary conduit through which the neuron transmits impulses to neurons downstream in the signal chain. Axons range in length from around 0.1 millimeters to nearly a meter in length with some neurons in the sciatic nerve. Axons branch into smaller extensions at their terminal end and eventually create synapses with the target cell. The nerve impulses like other communication systems use a sequence of impulses to carry message. The nature of nerve impulses, however, differs entirely from electromagnetic waves and sound waves. In every nerve cell, there is a membrane separating the cytoplasmic fluid from the extracellular solution. The generation of action potentials is mainly due to the changes of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) conductances. The conductance of Na+ ions may change dramatically with the membrane potential as demonstrated by voltage clamp experiments, in which the membrane potential is displaced to a new value and maintained there. The synapse is when a neurotransmitter is released into a synaptic cleft, transmission of a nerve impulse occurs. Integration is the summing of excitatory and inhibitory signals.
13.2The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is made up of the spinal cord and brain. The spinal cord conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and autonomic) to the brain conducts motor information from the brain to our various effectors skeletal muscles cardiac muscle , smooth muscle , glands, serves as a minor reflex center. The brain receives sensory input from the spinal cord as well as from its own nerves (e.g., olfactory and optic nerves) devotes most of its volume (and computational power) to processing its various sensory inputs and initiating appropriate — and coordinated — motor outputs.
13.3The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
This is a deep lying system in the brain is involved in determining emotions. The amygdale determines when a situation deserves the emotion we call fear. The hippocampus is particularly involved in storing and retrieving memories.
13.4 The Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS consists of sensory neurons running from stimulus receptors that inform the CNS of the stimuli & motor neurons running from the CNS to the muscles and glands - called effectors - that take action. The CNS consists of the spinal cord and the brain. The peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the sensory-somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system The Sensory-Somatic Nervous System consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The autonomic nervous system consists of sensory neurons and motor neurons that run between the central nervous system (especially the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata) and various internal organs such as the: heart, lungs , viscera , glands (both exocrine and endocrine). It is responsible for monitoring conditions in the internal environment and bringing about appropriate changes in them. The contraction of both smooth muscle and cardiac muscle is controlled by motor neurons of the autonomic system. The preganglionic motor neurons of the sympathetic system arise in the spinal cord. They pass into sympathetic ganglia which are organized into two chains that run parallel to and on either side of the spinal cord. The preganglionic neuron may do one of three things in the sympathetic ganglion: synapse with postganglionic neurons which then reenter the spinal nerve and ultimately pass out to the sweat glands and the walls of blood vessels near the surface of the body, pass up or down the sympathetic chain and finally synapse with postganglionic neurons in a higher or lower ganglion ,leave the ganglion by way of a cord leading to special ganglia (e.g. the solar plexus) in the viscera. Here it may synapse with postganglionic sympathetic neurons running to the smooth muscular walls of the viscera. However, some of these preganglionic neurons pass right on through this second ganglion and into the adrenal medulla. Here they synapse with the highly-modified postganglionic cells that make up the secretory portion of the adrenal medulla.
13.5 Drug Abuse
Drug abuse has a wide range of definitions related to taking a psychoactive drug or performance enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. Some of the most commonly abused drugs include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methaqualone, and opium alkaloids. Use of these drugs may lead to criminal penalty in addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, both strongly depending on local jurisdiction.[2] Other definitions of drug abuse fall into four main categories: public health definitions, mass communication and vernacular usage, medical definitions, and political and criminal justice definitions.
CHAPTER 14: SENSES

14.1 Sensory Receptors and Sensations
There are four types of sensory receptors chemoreceptor’s, photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and the thermoreceptros. Sensory receptors initiate nerve impulses that are transmitted to the spinal cord and or the brain. Sensation occurs when nerve impulses reach the cerebella cortex. Perception is an interpretation of sensations.
14.2 Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
Proprioceptors are mechanoreceptors involved in reflex actions and they help maintain equilibrium and posture. Cutaneous Receptors are found in the skin, and they are for touch, pressure, temp, and pain.
14.3 Senses of Taste & Smell
Taste and smell are due to chemoreceptor’s that are stimulated by molecules in the environment. Smell and taste problems can have a big impact on our lives. Because these senses contribute substantially to our enjoyment of life, our desire to eat, and be social, smell and taste disorders can be serious. When smell and taste are impaired, life loses some zest. We eat poorly, socialize less, and as a result, feel worse. Many older people experience this problem. Smell and taste belong to our chemical sensing system (chemo sensation). The complicated processes of smelling and tasting begin when molecules released by the substances around us stimulate special nerve cells in the nose, mouth, or throat. These cells transmit messages to the brain, where specific smells or tastes are identified. Olfactory (small nerve) cells are stimulated by the odors around us-the fragrance from a rose, the smell of bread baking. These nerve cells are found in a tiny patch of tissue high up in the nose, and they connect directly to the brain. Gustatory (taste nerve) cells react to food or drink mixed with saliva and is clustered in the taste buds of the mouth and throat. Many of the small bumps that can be seen on the tongue contain taste buds. These surface cells send taste information to nearby nerve fibers, which send messages to the brain.
14.4 Sense of Vision
Eyes are organs that detect light. Different kinds of light-sensitive organs are found in a variety of animals. The simplest eyes do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms but can hardly be called vision. More complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colors. The visual fields of some such complex eyes largely overlap, to allow better depth perception (binocular vision), as in humans; and others are placed so as to minimize the overlap, such as in rabbits and chameleons. e structure of the mammalian eye can be divided into three main layers or tunics whose names reflect their basic functions: the fibrous tunic, the vascular tunic, and the nervous tunic. The fibrous tunic, also known as the deoxiribose cartridge, which is the main carrying point of DNA, is the outer layer of the eyeball consisting of the cornea and sclera. The sclera gives the eye most of its white color. It consists of dense connective tissue filled with the protein collagen to both protect the inner components of the eye and maintain its shape. The vascular tunic, also known as the tunica vasculosa oculi, is the middle vascularized layer which includes the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. The choroid contains blood vessels that supply the retinal cells with necessary oxygen and remove the waste products of respiration. The choroid gives the inner eye a dark color, which prevents disruptive reflections within the eye. The nervous tunic, also known as the tunica nervosa oculi, is the inner sensory which includes the retina.
14.5 Sense of Hearing
Hearing depends on the ear, the cochlear nerve, and the auditory areas of the cerebral cortex. Is one of the traditional five senses. It is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations via an organ such as the ear. The inability to hear is called deafness. In humans and other vertebrates, hearing is performed primarily by the auditory system: vibrations are detected by the ear and transduced into nerve impulses that are perceived by the brain. Like touch, audition requires sensitivity to the movement of molecules in the world outside the organism. Both hearing and touch are types of mechanosensation. The middle ear, separated from the external ear by the eardrum, is an air-filled cavity (tympanic cavity) carved out of the temporal bone. It connects to the throat/nasopharynx via the Eustachian tube. This ear-throat connection makes the ear susceptible to infection (otitis media). The eustachian tube functions to equalize air pressure on both sides of the eardrum. Normally the walls of the tube are collapsed. Swallowing and chewing actions open the tube to allow air in or out, as needed for equalization. Equalizing air pressure ensures that the eardrum vibrates maximally when struck by sound waves.
The Anatomy of the Ear
Adjoining the eardrum are three linked, movable bones called "ossicles," which convert the sound waves striking the eardrum into mechanical vibrations. The smallest bones in the human body, the ossicles are named for their shape. The hammer (malleus) joins the inside of the eardrum. The anvil (incus), the middle bone, connects to the hammer and to the stirrup (stapes). The base of the stirrup, the footplate, fills the oval window which leads to the inner ear. The inner ear consists of a maze of fluid-filled tubes, running through the temporal bone of the skull. The bony tubes, the bony labyrinth, are filled with a fluid called perilymph. Within this bony labyrinth is a second series of delicate cellular tubes, called the membranous labyrinth, filled with the fluid called endolymph. This membranous labyrinth contains the actual hearing cells, the hair cells of the organ of Corti. There are three major sections of the bony labyrinth: The front portion is the snail-shaped cochlea, which functions in hearing.
The rear part, the semicircular canals, helps maintain balance.
Interconnecting the cochlea and the semicircular canals is the vestibule, containing the sense organs responsible for balance, the utricle and saccule.
14.6 Sense of Equilibrium
A sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head.

CHART

Pictures of my Sister Doing Activites

I am very sorry my pics are not the greatest, my sister refused to coroperate with the picture taking and i am not very good with the computer and rotating the photos. Sorry:(

This is her doing activity # 3 10 lunges

This her here jogging in place for one minute. Activity # 2

I know that they are not the best photos but she refused to let me take the photos of her front. This is her preforming activity #1, 20 jumping jacks.

Conclusion

Conclusion

At the end of the test I predicted everything corretly about the rise in heart beat, and breaths. However I predicted incorrectly about the fact that the lunges would raise her blood pressure, the results for that were also activity 2 being jogging in place. I really liked this lab it was fun to do, and entertaining at the same time. My sister in law Cierra however hated me for making her do it with me but at the same time it was interesting to watch how her pulse, breaths and blood pressure would increase and decrease depending upon the activities.

Activity Description & Hypothesis

ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION & HYPOTHESIS

During this activity I tested my sister in laws blood pressure. I had her do three different activities and took it three times after each activity. I also took her pressure while just resting too, before any activities. We used a at home blood pressure taker to measure the results. I had to make a prediction to as to how the pulse, resp, sys, and Dias would change throughout each activity. Activity 1 was doing 20 jumping jacks, activity 2 jogging in place for a minute, and activity 3 10 lunges. I predicted that the activity that would activate her pulse the most from an at rest stage was the jogging in place for 1 minute. I made a hypothesis that activity 1 being the jumping jacks would increase her breaths. And that activity 3 the lunges would increase her blood pressure. After the activities we will see if I predicted correctly.

Graphs for Blood Pressure Lab

BAR GRAPH

LINE GRAPH

Self Evaluation On Unit II

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
The three aspects that I am most proud of for submitting were the Review for the ch.'s, my food calculator lab & write up, and finally my essay on what is food.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?I would say i coud have used some improvement on the blood pressure lab and the quizzes.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I really worked hard on this unit and put alot of time into it, I feel I should get an A.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit? I feel that with this unit has been the best out of the 2 because I started my work early so therefore I was not rushed and had plenty of time to complete the assignements completly and thouroughly.


REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? I felt most engaged with this unit when doing the blood pressure lab in the middle of Albertsons.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? I felt that at the only time that i distanced from the course was in the online blood pressure lab.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? I find that the teacher is very helpful by pgiving us nline websites to help understand the unit better.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? I didnt not did not find anything to be confusing in this chapter at all it was all explained very well on the online websites.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.) The thing that suprised me the most was the amount of food and calories that I ate when recording down what i had ate.

What is Food Essay

WHAT IS FOOD?
Over the years several things have changed, including the way we eat. It used to be that families would sit down every night for a homemade dinner. Not anymore thanks to McDonalds, KFC, and curb side to go at several restaurants. Yes it’s hard not to want to stop for a burger maybe 1 or 2 days out of the week but every day, that’s when you start to experience health issues. Your body has to have the proper nutrients, and by eating French fries and Whoppers all day you’re not getting all the vitamins you need. I see so many families who, on their way home from work will stop by and pick up $30 worth of chicken from KFC or tacos for dinner and think that it’s okay. I used to eat out almost every day, and now me and my boyfriend would really rather cook ourselves dinner and sit down and eat. For one thing when you order to go food, you do not know exactly what is in your food, who cooked it or how long it had been sitting there. For example, we love to eat meat, whether its steaks, ribs, pork-chops whatever it is we’ll eat it. But so often now you here about all of the people who got food poisoning because their meat wasn’t cooked properly, or had expired. The difference when you cook at home is that you know that it is thoroughly cooked; it hasn’t been sitting on the plate for hours either. So not only is it bad to eat out daily and drink soda pop every day, but it puts a damper on your health as well. People wonder why we are the number #1 country for obesity, it’s because there’s a fast food place on every street practically. Not only does poor eating habits cause obesity but also, type II diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart problems. The only way America is ever going to get back into the routine of eating dinner at home, and not buying banquet frozen dinner meals is if food industries were to take them off the shelf. So we as Americans need to have more self-control, and start eating our fruits, veggies, and homemade meals and stop with the on the go food.

A Day Of Food Lab Results/Write Up

The list is kinda hard to see so i will write out what i ate on a Saturday.

Babgel Bites

Diet Coke

Sweet Tea

Baked Potato with Cives, Sour Cream and Butter

Country Time Lemondae

Mustard & Mayo

Lime Butter

Ceasar Salad

2 Choclate Dipped Strawberries

Lemon Chicken with Rice

Frozen Yogrut.

My total amount of calories came to : 2470

Calories From Fat: 1110

How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? I feel that although i may not eat alot of the healthiest foods its not completly bad. I should eat more fruit and veggies that it the only thing, but I have always read in the magazines that its better to snack on things throughout then day then try and starve your self to loose weight.

-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything?- The thing that i think i would have to change which i have tried to before is eating on a more set schedule, me bf works till ten everynight so we do not eat dinner until like 10:30 which is not good to go to sleep with a belly full of food that would be the thing that i would probably like to change the most.

Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not? Umm i do in some ways and others i dont. I am not trying to loose wight so to me i eat like a always have for the past 3 years i have a very fast metabolism and am very thank-ful for it. But i would say that it is pretty cool how you can just enter the foods in and it brings everything up, i think that if you were trying to loose weight that it would be a great site.

Online Blood Pressure Lab Write--Up

From this lab i learned alot. It was very interesting how you could view the medical history of the female/male and determine as to why their blood pressure was so high.

State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
With age comes higher blood pressure, but mens blood pressure with the ages of 45+ is higher then womens.

Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
The average blood pressure would be affected by the age due to the factthat younger individauls are going to have a lower blood pressure because they could possibly be healthier or just because of age.

How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
Measuring the blood pressure, i will follow the steps of doing each gender age group before switching genders.

Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
The results were that as the age increased so did the blood pressure,, but also that the mens was high then the womens no matter what age.

Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
Yes my hypothesis matched my conslusion of the fact that mens would be higher then womens, and that as age increased so would the blood pressure.
During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Yes there were several, they were mainly due to a high salt diet, and lack of exercise.

List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
Heredity. If your parents have or had high blood pressure, you have a greater chance of having it, too. Race. African-Americans are more likely to develop high blood pressure than their Caucasian counterparts. Gender. Men run a greater overall risk for developing high blood pressure than women do. However, women who are postmenopausal, especially if 20 pounds or more overweight, are at risk for developing high blood pressure. Age. The older we get, the greater the risk for developing high blood pressure. Obesity. Overweight people are more likely than others to develop high blood pressure.

What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity is a main componet for high blood pressure because it is causing the heart to work harder and also if you are obese chances are you do not exercise and that you have a poor diet.

CHAPTER 5, 6 & 7 PICTURES

CHAPTER 8 REVIEW

CHAPTER 8 REVIEW

8.1) Overview of Digestion

Digestion is the process of metabolism where by a biological entity processes a substance in order to chemically and mechanically convert the substance for the body to use. In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to break down starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through the churning of the stomach and mixing with enzymes.

8.2) First Part of the Digestive Track

Digestion is the process of turning food into fuel for energy, and for maintenance of the body structure. The digestive tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. Inside this tube is a lining called the mucosa. In the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, the mucosa contains tiny glands that produce enzymes to help digest food. There are also two solid digestive organs, the liver and the pancreas, which produce enzymes that reach the intestine through small tubes.
During the digestive process, food passes down the throat, through the esophagus, and into the stomach, where food continues to be broken down. The partially digested food passes into a short tube called the duodenum — the first part of the small intestine. The jejunum and ileum are also part of the small intestine. The liver, the gallbladder, and the pancreas produce enzymes and substances to help with digestion in the small intestine. After the digestive process is complete, the resulting waste travels downstream to the colon. The colon and rectum are parts of the body's digestive system, which removes nutrients from food and stores waste until it passes out of the body. Together, the colon and rectum form a long, muscular tube called the large intestine.

8.3) The Stomach and Small Intestine

The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.
In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.

8.4) Three Accessory Oragns & Regulation of Secretions

The three oragns of pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes for carbohydrates, protein and fat. The liver produces bile, destroyes old blood cells, detoxifies blood, stores iron, makes plasma proetins, stores glucose as glcogen, and helps regualte blood cholestrahl levels. The gallbladder sotres bile, which is produced by the liver.

8.5) The Large Intestine & Defecation

The large intestine is a hollow muscular tube about five feet in length. It is divided into the cecum, colon, and rectum. The cecum comprises the first two or three inches of the large intestine. The colon is subdivided into the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon. The sigmoid colon bends toward the left as it joins the rectum which allows gravity to aid the flow of water from the rectum into the sigmoid colon. The last portion of the large intestine is the rectum which extends from the sigmoid colon to the anus (about six inches.) The last inch of the rectum is called the anal canal. It contains the internal and external regulating sphincters which play an important role in regulating defecation. Muscle contractions in the colon push the stool toward the anus. By the time it reaches the rectum, it is solid because most of the water has been absorbed.

8.6) Nutrition and Weight Control

Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with good nutrition. Today obesity is on the increase, possibly because people eat to much, food that does not have the proper nutrients. For ex: fast food, and salty foods are not always a good thing to eat every single day. Saturated fatty acids lead to plaque, which occludes blood vessels. itamins and minerals are also required by the body in certain amounts.

Blood Pressure Lab

This is the chart where you mark down the average blood pressure for eah gender and for each age group.

This photo was the final image which showed a graph, marking the different pressures from each age group and gender. The pink and green represents the women, and blue and yellwo is the men.

CH. 5, 6, & 7 REVIEW

CHAPTERS 5, 6 &7 Review

CHAPTER 5

5.1) Overview of the Cardiovascular SystemThe cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood and blood vessels take blood to and from the capillaries, where exchanges of nutrients for & from wastes occur with tissue cells. Blood is refreshed at the lungs where gas exchange occurs. It is refreshed at the lungs, where gas exchanges occur.5.2) The Types of Blood VesselsArteries: take blood away from the heart. They have the thickest walls which allow them to withstand blood pressure.Capillaries: Exchange of substance occurs.Veins: They take blood to the heart. Veins have relatively weak walls with vales that keep the blood flowing in one direction.5.3) The Heart Is a Double PumpThe heart has the right and left side. Each side has an atrium and a ventricle. Vales keep the blood moving in the correct direction. The atrium receives o2 poor blood from the body, and the ventricle pumps it into the pulmonary circuit. During the cardiac cycle the SA mode initiates the heartbeat by causing the atria to contract. The heart sounds are due to the closing of the atrioventicles valves.5.4) Features of the Cardiovascular SystemPulse: The pulse rate indicates the heartbeat rate.Blood pressure moves blood in arteries by the beating of the heart accounts for the flow of blood in the arteries.Blood flow is slow in the capillaries: The reduced velocity of blood flow in capillaries facilitates exchange of nutrients and wastes in the tissues.Blood Flow in Veins Returns Blood to the Heart: This is caused by skeletal muscle contraction, the presence of valves, and respiratory movements.5.5) Two Cardiovascular Pathways
The cardiovascular system is divided into the pulmonary circuit and the systematic circuit. Pulmonary Circuit is the blood traveling to and from the lungs. The systemic Circuit the aorta divides into blood vessels that serve the bodies organs and cells.5.6) Exchange at the CapillariesAt the arterial end of a cardiovascular capillary, blood pressure is greater than osmotic pressure; therefore, water leaves the capillary. In the midsection oxygen and nutrients diffuse out of the capillary while carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuse into the capillary. At the venous end, osmotic pressure created by the presence of proteins exceeds blood pressure, causing water to enter the capillary.5.7) Cardiovascular Disease is the leading cause of death in the Western Countries. Hypertension and atherosclerosis can lead to a stroke, heart attack of an aneurysm. Following a heart healthy diet, getting regular exercise maintaining a proper weight and not smoking are key to fighting the disease.
CHAPTER 6
6.1) Blood: An OverviewBlood is a specialized bodily fluid (technically a tissue) that is composed of a liquid called blood plasma and blood cells suspended within the plasma. The blood cells present in blood are red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (including both leukocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets (also called thrombocytes). Plasma is predominantly water containing dissolved proteins, salts and many other substances; and makes up about 55% of blood by volume. Mammals have red blood, which is bright red when oxygenated, due to hemoglobin. Some animals, such as the horseshoe crab use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin.6.2) Red Blood Cells and Transport of OxygenRed blood cells perform the most important blood duty. A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells which are constantly traveling through your body delivering oxygen and removing waste. If they weren't, your body would slowly die. Red blood cells are red only because they contain protein chemicals called hemoglobin which is bright red in color. Hemoglobin contains the element Iron, making it an excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide. As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the hemoglobin. As the blood passes through the body's tissue, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells. The empty hemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases, transporting it away.6.3) White Blood Cells and Defense against DiseaseWhite blood cells, or leukocytes, are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Several different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.6.4 Platelets and Blood ClottingWhen blood vessels are cut or damaged, the loss of blood from the system must be stopped before shock and possible death occur. This is accomplished by solidification of the blood, a process called coagulation or clotting.A blood clot consists ofa plug of platelets enmeshed in aNetwork of insoluble fibrin molecules.Platelet aggregation and fibrin formation both require the proteolytic enzyme thrombin.6.5) Blood Typing and TransfusionsA blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoprotein’s or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system, and some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens, that stem from one allele (or very closely linked genes), collectively form a blood group system.Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 29 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion.Blood Types: Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can donate blood only to another group AB individual.Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups A or AB.Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups B or AB.Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, but their blood serum contains IgM anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies against the A and B blood group antigens. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (ie A, B, O or AB). If anyone needs a blood transfusion in a dire emergency, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O Negative blood can be issued.6.6 HomeostasisA relatively stable state of equilibrium or a tendency toward such a state between the different but interdependent elements or groups of elements of an organism, population, or group.Strong homeostasis, wherein structure and reserve do not change in composition. Since the amount of reserve and structure can vary, this allows a particular change in the composition of the whole body (as explained by the Dynamic Energy Budget theory).Weak homeostasis, wherein the ratio of the amounts of reserve and structure becomes constant as long as food availability is constant, even when the organism grows. This means that the whole body composition is constant during growth in constant environments.Structural homeostasis, wherein the sub-individual structures grow in harmony with the whole individual; the relative proportions of the individuals remain constant.
CHAPTER 7
7.1) Microbes, Pathogens and YouThey perform valuable services but they also cause disease. Bacteria is Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods to spirals. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles.7.2) The lymphatic SystemThe lymphatic system is a system of thin tubes that runs throughout the body. These tubes are called 'lymph vessels'. You may also hear those called 'lymphatic vessels'. The lymphatic system is like the blood circulation - the tubes branch through all parts of the body like the arteries and veins that carry blood. Except that the lymphatic system carries a colorless liquid called 'lymph'. Lymph is a clear fluid that circulates around the body tissues. It contains a high number of lymphocytes (white blood cells). Plasma leaks out of the capillaries to surround and bathe the body tissues. This then drains into the lymph vessels.7.3) Nonspecific DefensesImmunity involves nonspecific and specific defenses. The nonspecific defenses include, barriers to entry, the inflammatory reaction which involves the phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages.7.4) Specific DefensesSpecific Defense Requires B cells and T cells, also called B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B cells are not only produced in the bone marrow but also mature there. BCRs bind soluble antigens (like diphtheria toxin, the protein introduced into your body in the DTP vaccine).The bound antigen molecules are engulfed into the B cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis.The antigen is digested into fragmentsWhich are then displayed at the cell surface nestled inside a class II histocompatibility molecule.Helper T cells specific for this structure (i.e., with complementary TCRs) bind the B cell andsecrete lymphokines that:stimulate the B cell to enter the cell cycle and develop, by repeated mitosis, into a clone of cells with identical BCRs;switch from synthesizing their BCRs as integral membrane proteins to a soluble version;differentiate into plasma cells that secrete these soluble BCRs, which we now call antibodies.The surface of each T cell also displays thousands of identical T cell receptors (TCRs).There are two types of T cells that differ in their TCR.
7.5) Accuired Immunity
This type of immunity occurs in response to infection called ADAPTIVE as the immune system must adapt itself to previously unseen molecules. Following recovery from certain infections with a particular micro-organism, individuals will never again develop infection with the same organism, but can become infected with other micro-organisms, i.e. he/she is protected against one micro-organism. This form of protection is called IMMUNITY and an individual is said to be IMMUNISED against that organism. The induction of immunity by infection or with a vaccine is called ACTIVE IMMUNITY.
7.6) Hypersensitivity Reactions
Allergic Responses occur when the immune system reacts vigourlousy to substances. Immediate allergic reactions responses, usulayy are due to the activity of antibodies. Delayed allergic reactions are due to the T CELLS.