From this lab i learned alot. It was very interesting how you could view the medical history of the female/male and determine as to why their blood pressure was so high.
State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
With age comes higher blood pressure, but mens blood pressure with the ages of 45+ is higher then womens.
Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
The average blood pressure would be affected by the age due to the factthat younger individauls are going to have a lower blood pressure because they could possibly be healthier or just because of age.
How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
Measuring the blood pressure, i will follow the steps of doing each gender age group before switching genders.
Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
The results were that as the age increased so did the blood pressure,, but also that the mens was high then the womens no matter what age.
Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
Yes my hypothesis matched my conslusion of the fact that mens would be higher then womens, and that as age increased so would the blood pressure.
During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Yes there were several, they were mainly due to a high salt diet, and lack of exercise.
List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
Heredity. If your parents have or had high blood pressure, you have a greater chance of having it, too. Race. African-Americans are more likely to develop high blood pressure than their Caucasian counterparts. Gender. Men run a greater overall risk for developing high blood pressure than women do. However, women who are postmenopausal, especially if 20 pounds or more overweight, are at risk for developing high blood pressure. Age. The older we get, the greater the risk for developing high blood pressure. Obesity. Overweight people are more likely than others to develop high blood pressure.
What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity is a main componet for high blood pressure because it is causing the heart to work harder and also if you are obese chances are you do not exercise and that you have a poor diet.
Sunday, March 9, 2008
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
8.1) Overview of Digestion
Digestion is the process of metabolism where by a biological entity processes a substance in order to chemically and mechanically convert the substance for the body to use. In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to break down starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through the churning of the stomach and mixing with enzymes.
8.2) First Part of the Digestive Track
Digestion is the process of turning food into fuel for energy, and for maintenance of the body structure. The digestive tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. Inside this tube is a lining called the mucosa. In the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, the mucosa contains tiny glands that produce enzymes to help digest food. There are also two solid digestive organs, the liver and the pancreas, which produce enzymes that reach the intestine through small tubes.
During the digestive process, food passes down the throat, through the esophagus, and into the stomach, where food continues to be broken down. The partially digested food passes into a short tube called the duodenum — the first part of the small intestine. The jejunum and ileum are also part of the small intestine. The liver, the gallbladder, and the pancreas produce enzymes and substances to help with digestion in the small intestine. After the digestive process is complete, the resulting waste travels downstream to the colon. The colon and rectum are parts of the body's digestive system, which removes nutrients from food and stores waste until it passes out of the body. Together, the colon and rectum form a long, muscular tube called the large intestine.
During the digestive process, food passes down the throat, through the esophagus, and into the stomach, where food continues to be broken down. The partially digested food passes into a short tube called the duodenum — the first part of the small intestine. The jejunum and ileum are also part of the small intestine. The liver, the gallbladder, and the pancreas produce enzymes and substances to help with digestion in the small intestine. After the digestive process is complete, the resulting waste travels downstream to the colon. The colon and rectum are parts of the body's digestive system, which removes nutrients from food and stores waste until it passes out of the body. Together, the colon and rectum form a long, muscular tube called the large intestine.
8.3) The Stomach and Small Intestine
The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.
In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.
In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.
8.4) Three Accessory Oragns & Regulation of Secretions
The three oragns of pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes for carbohydrates, protein and fat. The liver produces bile, destroyes old blood cells, detoxifies blood, stores iron, makes plasma proetins, stores glucose as glcogen, and helps regualte blood cholestrahl levels. The gallbladder sotres bile, which is produced by the liver.
8.5) The Large Intestine & Defecation
The large intestine is a hollow muscular tube about five feet in length. It is divided into the cecum, colon, and rectum. The cecum comprises the first two or three inches of the large intestine. The colon is subdivided into the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon. The sigmoid colon bends toward the left as it joins the rectum which allows gravity to aid the flow of water from the rectum into the sigmoid colon. The last portion of the large intestine is the rectum which extends from the sigmoid colon to the anus (about six inches.) The last inch of the rectum is called the anal canal. It contains the internal and external regulating sphincters which play an important role in regulating defecation. Muscle contractions in the colon push the stool toward the anus. By the time it reaches the rectum, it is solid because most of the water has been absorbed.
8.6) Nutrition and Weight Control
Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with good nutrition. Today obesity is on the increase, possibly because people eat to much, food that does not have the proper nutrients. For ex: fast food, and salty foods are not always a good thing to eat every single day. Saturated fatty acids lead to plaque, which occludes blood vessels. itamins and minerals are also required by the body in certain amounts.
Blood Pressure Lab
This is the chart where you mark down the average blood pressure for eah gender and for each age group.
This photo was the final image which showed a graph, marking the different pressures from each age group and gender. The pink and green represents the women, and blue and yellwo is the men.CH. 5, 6, & 7 REVIEW
CHAPTERS 5, 6 &7 Review
CHAPTER 5
5.1) Overview of the Cardiovascular SystemThe cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood and blood vessels take blood to and from the capillaries, where exchanges of nutrients for & from wastes occur with tissue cells. Blood is refreshed at the lungs where gas exchange occurs. It is refreshed at the lungs, where gas exchanges occur.5.2) The Types of Blood VesselsArteries: take blood away from the heart. They have the thickest walls which allow them to withstand blood pressure.Capillaries: Exchange of substance occurs.Veins: They take blood to the heart. Veins have relatively weak walls with vales that keep the blood flowing in one direction.5.3) The Heart Is a Double PumpThe heart has the right and left side. Each side has an atrium and a ventricle. Vales keep the blood moving in the correct direction. The atrium receives o2 poor blood from the body, and the ventricle pumps it into the pulmonary circuit. During the cardiac cycle the SA mode initiates the heartbeat by causing the atria to contract. The heart sounds are due to the closing of the atrioventicles valves.5.4) Features of the Cardiovascular SystemPulse: The pulse rate indicates the heartbeat rate.Blood pressure moves blood in arteries by the beating of the heart accounts for the flow of blood in the arteries.Blood flow is slow in the capillaries: The reduced velocity of blood flow in capillaries facilitates exchange of nutrients and wastes in the tissues.Blood Flow in Veins Returns Blood to the Heart: This is caused by skeletal muscle contraction, the presence of valves, and respiratory movements.5.5) Two Cardiovascular Pathways
The cardiovascular system is divided into the pulmonary circuit and the systematic circuit. Pulmonary Circuit is the blood traveling to and from the lungs. The systemic Circuit the aorta divides into blood vessels that serve the bodies organs and cells.5.6) Exchange at the CapillariesAt the arterial end of a cardiovascular capillary, blood pressure is greater than osmotic pressure; therefore, water leaves the capillary. In the midsection oxygen and nutrients diffuse out of the capillary while carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuse into the capillary. At the venous end, osmotic pressure created by the presence of proteins exceeds blood pressure, causing water to enter the capillary.5.7) Cardiovascular Disease is the leading cause of death in the Western Countries. Hypertension and atherosclerosis can lead to a stroke, heart attack of an aneurysm. Following a heart healthy diet, getting regular exercise maintaining a proper weight and not smoking are key to fighting the disease.
CHAPTER 6
6.1) Blood: An OverviewBlood is a specialized bodily fluid (technically a tissue) that is composed of a liquid called blood plasma and blood cells suspended within the plasma. The blood cells present in blood are red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (including both leukocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets (also called thrombocytes). Plasma is predominantly water containing dissolved proteins, salts and many other substances; and makes up about 55% of blood by volume. Mammals have red blood, which is bright red when oxygenated, due to hemoglobin. Some animals, such as the horseshoe crab use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin.6.2) Red Blood Cells and Transport of OxygenRed blood cells perform the most important blood duty. A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells which are constantly traveling through your body delivering oxygen and removing waste. If they weren't, your body would slowly die. Red blood cells are red only because they contain protein chemicals called hemoglobin which is bright red in color. Hemoglobin contains the element Iron, making it an excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide. As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the hemoglobin. As the blood passes through the body's tissue, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells. The empty hemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases, transporting it away.6.3) White Blood Cells and Defense against DiseaseWhite blood cells, or leukocytes, are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Several different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.6.4 Platelets and Blood ClottingWhen blood vessels are cut or damaged, the loss of blood from the system must be stopped before shock and possible death occur. This is accomplished by solidification of the blood, a process called coagulation or clotting.A blood clot consists ofa plug of platelets enmeshed in aNetwork of insoluble fibrin molecules.Platelet aggregation and fibrin formation both require the proteolytic enzyme thrombin.6.5) Blood Typing and TransfusionsA blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoprotein’s or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system, and some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens, that stem from one allele (or very closely linked genes), collectively form a blood group system.Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 29 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion.Blood Types: Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can donate blood only to another group AB individual.Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups A or AB.Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups B or AB.Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, but their blood serum contains IgM anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies against the A and B blood group antigens. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (ie A, B, O or AB). If anyone needs a blood transfusion in a dire emergency, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O Negative blood can be issued.6.6 HomeostasisA relatively stable state of equilibrium or a tendency toward such a state between the different but interdependent elements or groups of elements of an organism, population, or group.Strong homeostasis, wherein structure and reserve do not change in composition. Since the amount of reserve and structure can vary, this allows a particular change in the composition of the whole body (as explained by the Dynamic Energy Budget theory).Weak homeostasis, wherein the ratio of the amounts of reserve and structure becomes constant as long as food availability is constant, even when the organism grows. This means that the whole body composition is constant during growth in constant environments.Structural homeostasis, wherein the sub-individual structures grow in harmony with the whole individual; the relative proportions of the individuals remain constant.
CHAPTER 7
7.1) Microbes, Pathogens and YouThey perform valuable services but they also cause disease. Bacteria is Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods to spirals. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles.7.2) The lymphatic SystemThe lymphatic system is a system of thin tubes that runs throughout the body. These tubes are called 'lymph vessels'. You may also hear those called 'lymphatic vessels'. The lymphatic system is like the blood circulation - the tubes branch through all parts of the body like the arteries and veins that carry blood. Except that the lymphatic system carries a colorless liquid called 'lymph'. Lymph is a clear fluid that circulates around the body tissues. It contains a high number of lymphocytes (white blood cells). Plasma leaks out of the capillaries to surround and bathe the body tissues. This then drains into the lymph vessels.7.3) Nonspecific DefensesImmunity involves nonspecific and specific defenses. The nonspecific defenses include, barriers to entry, the inflammatory reaction which involves the phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages.7.4) Specific DefensesSpecific Defense Requires B cells and T cells, also called B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B cells are not only produced in the bone marrow but also mature there. BCRs bind soluble antigens (like diphtheria toxin, the protein introduced into your body in the DTP vaccine).The bound antigen molecules are engulfed into the B cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis.The antigen is digested into fragmentsWhich are then displayed at the cell surface nestled inside a class II histocompatibility molecule.Helper T cells specific for this structure (i.e., with complementary TCRs) bind the B cell andsecrete lymphokines that:stimulate the B cell to enter the cell cycle and develop, by repeated mitosis, into a clone of cells with identical BCRs;switch from synthesizing their BCRs as integral membrane proteins to a soluble version;differentiate into plasma cells that secrete these soluble BCRs, which we now call antibodies.The surface of each T cell also displays thousands of identical T cell receptors (TCRs).There are two types of T cells that differ in their TCR.
7.5) Accuired Immunity
This type of immunity occurs in response to infection called ADAPTIVE as the immune system must adapt itself to previously unseen molecules. Following recovery from certain infections with a particular micro-organism, individuals will never again develop infection with the same organism, but can become infected with other micro-organisms, i.e. he/she is protected against one micro-organism. This form of protection is called IMMUNITY and an individual is said to be IMMUNISED against that organism. The induction of immunity by infection or with a vaccine is called ACTIVE IMMUNITY.
7.6) Hypersensitivity Reactions
Allergic Responses occur when the immune system reacts vigourlousy to substances. Immediate allergic reactions responses, usulayy are due to the activity of antibodies. Delayed allergic reactions are due to the T CELLS.
The cardiovascular system is divided into the pulmonary circuit and the systematic circuit. Pulmonary Circuit is the blood traveling to and from the lungs. The systemic Circuit the aorta divides into blood vessels that serve the bodies organs and cells.5.6) Exchange at the CapillariesAt the arterial end of a cardiovascular capillary, blood pressure is greater than osmotic pressure; therefore, water leaves the capillary. In the midsection oxygen and nutrients diffuse out of the capillary while carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuse into the capillary. At the venous end, osmotic pressure created by the presence of proteins exceeds blood pressure, causing water to enter the capillary.5.7) Cardiovascular Disease is the leading cause of death in the Western Countries. Hypertension and atherosclerosis can lead to a stroke, heart attack of an aneurysm. Following a heart healthy diet, getting regular exercise maintaining a proper weight and not smoking are key to fighting the disease.
CHAPTER 6
6.1) Blood: An OverviewBlood is a specialized bodily fluid (technically a tissue) that is composed of a liquid called blood plasma and blood cells suspended within the plasma. The blood cells present in blood are red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (including both leukocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets (also called thrombocytes). Plasma is predominantly water containing dissolved proteins, salts and many other substances; and makes up about 55% of blood by volume. Mammals have red blood, which is bright red when oxygenated, due to hemoglobin. Some animals, such as the horseshoe crab use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin.6.2) Red Blood Cells and Transport of OxygenRed blood cells perform the most important blood duty. A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells which are constantly traveling through your body delivering oxygen and removing waste. If they weren't, your body would slowly die. Red blood cells are red only because they contain protein chemicals called hemoglobin which is bright red in color. Hemoglobin contains the element Iron, making it an excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide. As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the hemoglobin. As the blood passes through the body's tissue, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells. The empty hemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases, transporting it away.6.3) White Blood Cells and Defense against DiseaseWhite blood cells, or leukocytes, are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Several different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.6.4 Platelets and Blood ClottingWhen blood vessels are cut or damaged, the loss of blood from the system must be stopped before shock and possible death occur. This is accomplished by solidification of the blood, a process called coagulation or clotting.A blood clot consists ofa plug of platelets enmeshed in aNetwork of insoluble fibrin molecules.Platelet aggregation and fibrin formation both require the proteolytic enzyme thrombin.6.5) Blood Typing and TransfusionsA blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoprotein’s or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system, and some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens, that stem from one allele (or very closely linked genes), collectively form a blood group system.Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 29 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion.Blood Types: Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can donate blood only to another group AB individual.Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups A or AB.Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups B or AB.Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, but their blood serum contains IgM anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies against the A and B blood group antigens. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (ie A, B, O or AB). If anyone needs a blood transfusion in a dire emergency, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O Negative blood can be issued.6.6 HomeostasisA relatively stable state of equilibrium or a tendency toward such a state between the different but interdependent elements or groups of elements of an organism, population, or group.Strong homeostasis, wherein structure and reserve do not change in composition. Since the amount of reserve and structure can vary, this allows a particular change in the composition of the whole body (as explained by the Dynamic Energy Budget theory).Weak homeostasis, wherein the ratio of the amounts of reserve and structure becomes constant as long as food availability is constant, even when the organism grows. This means that the whole body composition is constant during growth in constant environments.Structural homeostasis, wherein the sub-individual structures grow in harmony with the whole individual; the relative proportions of the individuals remain constant.
CHAPTER 7
7.1) Microbes, Pathogens and YouThey perform valuable services but they also cause disease. Bacteria is Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods to spirals. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles.7.2) The lymphatic SystemThe lymphatic system is a system of thin tubes that runs throughout the body. These tubes are called 'lymph vessels'. You may also hear those called 'lymphatic vessels'. The lymphatic system is like the blood circulation - the tubes branch through all parts of the body like the arteries and veins that carry blood. Except that the lymphatic system carries a colorless liquid called 'lymph'. Lymph is a clear fluid that circulates around the body tissues. It contains a high number of lymphocytes (white blood cells). Plasma leaks out of the capillaries to surround and bathe the body tissues. This then drains into the lymph vessels.7.3) Nonspecific DefensesImmunity involves nonspecific and specific defenses. The nonspecific defenses include, barriers to entry, the inflammatory reaction which involves the phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages.7.4) Specific DefensesSpecific Defense Requires B cells and T cells, also called B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B cells are not only produced in the bone marrow but also mature there. BCRs bind soluble antigens (like diphtheria toxin, the protein introduced into your body in the DTP vaccine).The bound antigen molecules are engulfed into the B cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis.The antigen is digested into fragmentsWhich are then displayed at the cell surface nestled inside a class II histocompatibility molecule.Helper T cells specific for this structure (i.e., with complementary TCRs) bind the B cell andsecrete lymphokines that:stimulate the B cell to enter the cell cycle and develop, by repeated mitosis, into a clone of cells with identical BCRs;switch from synthesizing their BCRs as integral membrane proteins to a soluble version;differentiate into plasma cells that secrete these soluble BCRs, which we now call antibodies.The surface of each T cell also displays thousands of identical T cell receptors (TCRs).There are two types of T cells that differ in their TCR.
7.5) Accuired Immunity
This type of immunity occurs in response to infection called ADAPTIVE as the immune system must adapt itself to previously unseen molecules. Following recovery from certain infections with a particular micro-organism, individuals will never again develop infection with the same organism, but can become infected with other micro-organisms, i.e. he/she is protected against one micro-organism. This form of protection is called IMMUNITY and an individual is said to be IMMUNISED against that organism. The induction of immunity by infection or with a vaccine is called ACTIVE IMMUNITY.
7.6) Hypersensitivity Reactions
Allergic Responses occur when the immune system reacts vigourlousy to substances. Immediate allergic reactions responses, usulayy are due to the activity of antibodies. Delayed allergic reactions are due to the T CELLS.
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