Self Evaluation

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? My cell Lab, Write-Ups and Online Labs.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? Maybe my ethical Essay, and my Punnets Square Lab.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I belive that i put alot of time and effort into this unit and should receive a A or B
4. How could I perform better in the next unit? I could do more research on my lab project to come up with more unique ideas.


REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? I really liked the unit on Cancer.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? The first chapter was a little hard for me to stay focused just because it was alot of common sense, but in return made the review easier.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? I find it very helpful to be able to refer to other students work to see how well they are peforming and push myself to be just as good if not better.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? I did not find any student/teachers workto be confusing at all, everybodys work was layed out very well.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.) I was most suprised to learn all about the different types of cancer and radiation just because my Grandpa just passed away from it and its easier to have a better understanding of it.

Ethical Issues Essay

Ethical Issue Essay
The Artificial God

In this document we will discuss cloning. Cloning is a method of reproduction used to copy a cell or an individual (producing a clone) from their DNA. There is more than just one type of cloning however. The three different types of cloning that will be discussed are Recombinant DNA technology or DNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning.

Although there are several differnet names or terms for DNA cloning they all mean the same thing. DNA cloning has been around since the 1970s, and has become an everyday use in our labs today. Bascially when scientists try and produce a replication of an animal they are taking the cell from one animal or human and trying to replicate it into another. The animal/human would be identical, they can make up to several replicas of the species with cloning. This is not the only way however to reproduce something in a lab, there is also Reproductive Cloning.

Reproductive Cloning is a technology that is used to generate an animal that has the same DNA as a living or previous animal. In this process they create animals from taking the genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell and placing it in a egg of the new animal or soon to be newly created animal. For example there was a sheep named " Dolly" who was the first animal to be cloned from adult DNA. However, Dolly died several years after. The final type of cloning is Therapeutic Cloning.

Therapeutic Cloning is the production of human embryos for use in research. This type of cloning is not meant to recreat humans or animals but to help cure and even treat diseases. They also would use stem cells. Stem cells are a necessary factor in completing the research because they are important to biomedical research because they can be used to generate any type of speciallized cell.

We have discussed three different type of cloning and are now faced with what we believe is correct and necessary for future research and what is not. I believe that Therapuetic Cloning is a very necessary technique that is needed to keep our health under control. herapeutic Cloning is basically a way to help humans down the road, reproductive cloning is the regenerate an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another current or previous living mammal, & DNA cloning I do not feel is a neccessary technology that we need to be faced with. Researchers recentl sais that that may be what meat that we but from the grocery stores is now, meaning that it would not be from a naturally living animal.

Chapter 19 -21 Rev.

Chapter 19

Cancer

1. Cancer Cells

Although cancer is actually over 100 different diseases and each type of cancer can vary from another, these characteristics are common to cancer cells. Cancer cells lack differenation and do not contribute to function. They do not undergo apoptosis, they enter the cell cycle an unlimited number of times. They form tumors and do not need growth factors to signal them to divide. They gradually become adnormal-carcinogensis is comprised of initiation, pr0motion and progression. They undergo angiogenesis and can spread throughout the body. Cells become increasingly abnormal due to mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Proto-oncogenes, they promote cell cycle activity and restrain apoptosis.

2.Causes ans Prevention of Cancer

A mutagen is an agent that causes mutations. A carcinogen is a chemical that causes cancer, for ex: by being mutagenic. Tobacco smoke conatins a number of organic chemicals that are known mutagens including nitrosonor-nicotine and benzo.

3. Diagnosis of Cancer

At present, daignosis of cancer before metastasis is difficult. Pap test for cervical Cancer, mamogram for breast cancer, tumor mark tests-blood tests that detect tumor antigens/anitbodies. Tests for genetic mutations of oncogens and tumor suppressor genes. A biopsy and imaging is used to confirm the diagnosis of cancer.

4. Treatment of Cancer

There are several methods of treatment for cancer, the common ones are surgery, rediation, and chemotheraopy. The other methods are bone marrow transplants, immunotherapy. Other therapies on top of these ones such as inhibitory drugs for angiogenesis and metastasis, which are being investigated.

CHAPTER 20

Patterns of Genetic Inheritance

1. Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype refers to the genes of one individual. Alternative forms of a gene having the same position on a pair of chromosomes and affecting the same trait are called alleled. It is customary to desginate an allele by a letter which represents the specific trait it contorls a dominate allele and is assigned an uppercase letter, while a recessive allel is given the same letter but in lowercase.

2. One and Two Trait Inheritance

The first step in doing one trait problems is to determine the genotype and then the gametes. An individual has 2 allelesfor every trait, but a gamete has one allele for every trait. TThe next step is to combine all possible sperm with all possible eggs. If there is more than one possible sperm and or egg, a Punnett Square is helpful in determining the genotypic and phenotypic ratio among the offspring.

3. Beyond Simple Inhheritance Patterns

In some patterns of inheritance, the alleles are not just dominate or recessive. Plygenic traits, such as skin colo and height are controlled by more then one set of allels. The dominate alleles has an additive effect on the phenotype. In incomplete dominance the heterzygote is intermidiate between two homozygous. In codominance, both dominate alleles are expressed equally. Multiple Allele Inheritance patter is exemplified in humans by blood type inhertiance.

4. Sex-Linked Inheritance

Many genes on the x chromosomes, such as those that dtermine normal vision as opposed to color blidness, are unrelated to the gender of the individual. A pedigree for an X linked recessive disorder shows that the trait often passes from grandfather to gradson by was of carrier daughter. Like most x-linked disorders, color blindess, muscular dystrophy, and hemophilia are recessive.

CHAPTER 21

DNA BIOLOGY & TECHNOLOGY

1. DNA & RNA Structure and Function

DNA is the genetic material found in the chromosomes. It replicate, stores info and mutates for gentice varibility. The structure of DNA is a double helix composed of 2 polyhucleotide strands. Each nucleotide is composed of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogen containing base. The base A is bonded to T, and G is Bonded to C. The replication of DNA is the strands unzip and a new complementary strand forms opposite each old strand, resulting in tow identical DNA molecules. The structure of RNA, is a single starnded nuclei acid in which the base U occurs instead of T. The 3 forms of RNA are: rRNA, mRNA, tRNA.

2. Gene Expession

Gene expression leads to the formation of a product, usually a protein. Proteins differ by the sequence of their amino acids. Transcription- Occurs in the nucleus. The DNA triplet code is passed to an mRNA that contains codons,. Intorns are removed from mRNA during mRNA processing. Translation: Occurs in the cytoplams at the ribsomes tRNA molecules bind to their amino acids and then their anticodons pair with mRNA codons.

Chapter 18 Rev.

MAJOR TOPIC TWO

Chapter 18 Review: Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance
1. Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle
Chromosomes occur in pairs in the body’s cells. A karyotype is a visual display of a person’s chromosome. A normal human karyotype shows 22 homologous pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chrom. The normal sex chrom. In males is XY, and in females XX. The cell cycle occurs continually and has 4 stages to it. G1, S, G2, M. In G1 a cell doubles organelles and accumulates materials for DNA synthesis. In stage S DNA replication occurs. N G2, a cell synthesizes proteins needed for cell division.
2. Mitosis
This is the duplication division that assures that all body cells have the diploid number & the same kinds of chromosomes as the cell that divides. Prophase: Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers. Metaphase: They align at the equator. Anaphase: Chromatids separate, becoming chromosomes that move toward the poles. Telophase: Nuclear envelope form around chromosomes, cytokinesis begins. Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm and organelles following mitosis.
3. Meiosis
This involves two cell divisions, I and II. In stage I, homologous chromosomes pair and then separate. In stage II, sister Chromatids separate, resulting in four cells with the haploid number of chromosomes that move into daughter nuclei. Meiosis is a part of a gametogenesis.
4. Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis
They are both nuclear divisions but there are several differences between them. Meiosis only occurs at a certain time in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms. The events of meioses II are just like those of mitosis except in meiosis II the nuclei contain the haploid number of chromosomes. Meiosis is a part of spermatogenesis the production of sperm in males, and oogenesis in the eggs of a female.
5. Chromosomes Inheritance
Meiosis is a part of gametogenesis and contributes to genetic diversity. Nondisjuction changes the chromosome number in gametes, resulting in trisom or monosomy. Autosomal syndromes include trisomy and Down syndrome. No disjunction during oogenesis can result in gametes that have too few or too many X or Y chromosomes. The syndromes names are: Turner, Klinefelter, poly-x, and Jacobs.

CHAPTER 18-22 PHOTO'S

Genetics Lab Write Up

In scarnerio 6 were crossed two flies also and got two differnt matches.

In Scenario5 here we were aked to cross two flies. Heterzygous and homozygous.

This is the results after i matched up the chromosomes to be identical.

This here represents the two different dragons that I have before matching up their chromosomes.

All genes are made up of DNA – the inherited genetic material passed on from one generation to the next that is found in all cells of the human body. Genes are responsible for how your body develops looks and works. Your genes are unique to you – nobody else has the same set of genes unless you have an identical twin. The two copies of the gene may be exactly the same or be slightly different versions, called alleles. Examples of alleles can be found in the genes for eye color and hair color. These genes are present in all people, but slightly different versions, or alleles, account for the variations seen in eye and hair color. Genotype is a term that refers to the individual's genetic makeup. Phenotype is a term that refers to the traits or features that a person displays. The relationship between genotype and phenotype is often complicated. Although a child has half his or her genetic information from each parent, he or she is not necessarily a simple combination of the parents' traits. This is because of the complex interaction between the two alleles for each gene, between different genes, and between genes and the environment. Genes run in families and are passed on to you from your parents - half of your genes have come from your mother and half from your father. This is how family resemblance and an increased risk of a disease running in the family are passed down from one generation to the next. Depending on the combination of genes you inherit you will end up with some traits that resemble your mother and others that resemble your father.While most characteristics and conditions have a complex genetic and environmental basis, there are a few traits or diseases for which the role of genes is well understood. In most cases, these traits or diseases are due to different alleles of a single gene. As described below, the alleles can be dominant or recessive. The concept of dominant and recessive alleles was first described in the 1860s by a monk named Gregor Mendel who studied the relationship between genotype and phenotype in pea plants. Therefore, traits or diseases which are due to single genes are sometimes called Mendelian.

We now discuss the Punnet Square Lab: In this discussion, cross dominate, recessive will be talked about. In this lab we were asked to cross two flies half of a heterozygous gray bodied and half of a homozygous gray bodied. ( Gg, GG). We were creating 2 new flies. In the creation the half homozygous fly had indentical matches of the body color. They were not alike but had alike skin tones. This is th GG fly. The other fly which is represented by Gg had two different colored skin flies. This occured because one fly was dominate which was letter G and the other recessive one (g).

Dragon Lab:In this lab we were given instructions to move and change several different genotypes, which meant changing the apperance of the dragon( phenotype. )While reading the interactive lab it noted that the dragons had different physical appereances because of their genotype. The chromosomes for the dragons were labeled with what they contorleed(ex: tail, fire, skin etc..). We were asked to match the two dragons until they were identical. In orderto do that all that i had to do was take a couple minutes to review Dragon 1's phenotype and and change Dragon 2's alleles until the two dragons became identical. Therefore without genetic inheritanc life would not be possible. Genetic inheretance happens when offspring of cells inherits different traits of the parents.

Ch. 1-4 Rev.

Compendium Review
UNIT 1 CELLS & GENETICS

1.) The Characteristics of Life
Biology is that scientific study of life, and human biology is a specialty in this field. Humans are part of the natural world; specifically the world of living things such as long-necked giraffes, butterflies, giant sequoia trees, low-laying mushrooms and colorful angelfish. Living things: are organized, from atoms to the biosphere, take materials and energy from the environment, reproduce, grow and develop various stages from fertilization to death, are homeostatic, respond to stimuli, have an evolutionary history.
2.) Life is Organized
A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism. Humans are multi cellular because they are composed of many different types of cells. A tissue is a group of similar cell’s that perform a particular function. Several types of tissues make up an organ, and each organ belongs to an organ system. The organs of an organ system work together to accomplish a common purpose. The brain works with the spinal cord to send commands to body parts by way of nerves. Organisms, such as tress and human, are a collection of organ systems. All the members of one species in a particular area belong to a population. The populations of various animals and plants in the forest make up a community. The community of populations interacts with the physical systems make up the biosphere.
3,) Acquiring Materials and Energy.
Human beings cannot maintain their organization or carry on life’s activities without an outside source of materials and energy. Food provides nutrient molecules, which are used as building blocks or for energy. It takes energy (work) to maintain the organization of the cell and of the organism. Most living things can also convert energy into motion.
4.) Reproducing
Reproduction is a fundamental characteristic of life. When living things reproduce, the create a cop of themselves and ensure the continuance of their own kind. The presence of genes, in the form of DNA molecules, allows cells and organisms to make more of themselves. DNA contains the hereditary information that directs the structure of the cell and its metabolism, all the chemical reactions in the cell. Before reproduction occurs, DNA is replicated so that exact copies of genes are passed on to offspring.
5.) Growing and Developing
In humans, development includes all the changes that occur from the time the egg is fertilized until death and therefore all changes that occur during childhood adolescence and adulthood. Development also includes the repair that takes place following an injury.
6.) Being Homeostatic
Together, the organ systems maintain homeostasis and internal environment for cells that usually varies only within certain limits. The digestive system takes in nutrient, and respiratory system exchanges gases with the environment. The cardiovascular system distributes nutrients and oxygen to the cells and picks up their wastes. The metabolic waste precuts of cells are excreted by the urinary system.
7.) Responding to Stimuli:
Living things respond to external stimuli, often by moving toward or away from a stimulus such as the sight of food. Homeostasis would be impossible without the ability of the body to respond to stimuli. Response to external stimuli is more apparent to us because it does involve movement as when we quickly remove a hand from a hot stove. If blood pressure rises too high, the brain directs blood vessels to dilate, helping to restore normal blood pressure.
8.) Life Has an Evolutionary History:
Evolution is the process by which a species changes through time. Each successive generation will include more members with the new variation that represents and adaptation to the environment. Evolution which has been going on since the origin of life exists, explains both the unity and the diversity of life. All organisms share the same characteristics of life because their ancestry can be traced to the first cell or cells. Organisms are diverse because they are adapted to different ways of life.
II. Humans Are Related to Other Animals:
1.) Living things are now classified into their domains. O f these domain Eukarya contains four kingdoms, and humans are vertebrates in the kingdom Animalia. Vertebrates have a nerve cord that is protected by a vertebral column, who’s repeating units indicate that we and other vertebrates are segmented animals. Among that vertebrate, we are mammals and so are apes, from which we are distinguished by our 1.) Highly developed brains, 2.) Completely upright stance, 3.) Creative language and 4.)Ability to use a wide spread variety of tools.
2.) Culture encompasses human activities and products that are passed on from one generation to the next outside of direct biological inheritance. Human skills have also produced a rich heritage in the arts and sciences. The culture of highly civilized people, in particular, gives us the impression we are separate from other animals and make us think we are not a part of nature.
3.) Humans Are Members of the Biosphere:
All living things on Earth are part of the biosphere, a living network that spans the surface of the Earth into the atmosphere and down into the soil and seas. If it were not for microorganisms that decompose the waste we dump into the biosphere, it would soon cover the entire surface of the Earth. Aside from supplying us with fish as a food source, freshwater ecosystems such as rivers and lakes provide us with drinking water and water to irrigate crops. Most of our crops and prescription drugs were originally derived from plants that grew wild in and ecosystem.
4.) Humans Threaten the Biosphere :
The human population tends to modify existing ecosystems of its own purposes. Almost all natural ecosystems are altered by human activities, which also reduce biodiversity. The present biodiversity of our planet has been estimated to be as high as 15 million species and so far fewer than 2 million have been identified and named. Extinction is the death of a species or larger group of organisms. It is estimated that presently, we are losing as many as 400 species per day due to human activities. One of the major bioethical issues of our time is preservation of the biosphere and biodiversity.
III: Science as a Process
1.) Science is a way of knowing about the natural world.
2.) Importance of Scientific Theories in Biology:
The ultimate goal in science is to understand the natural world in terms of scientific theories. Scientific theories are concepts that tell us about the order and the patters within the natural world; in other words, how the natural world is organized. Evolution is the unifying concept of biology because it makes sense of what we know about living things. Because the theory of evolution has been supports by so many observations and experiments for over a hundred years, some biologists refer to the principle of evolution. This term is prefers terminology for theories that are generally accepted as valid by an overwhelming number of scientists.
3.) The Scientific Method Has Steps:
Unlike the other types of info available to us, scientific info is acquired by a process known as the scientific method. After making initial observations, a scientist will, most likely study any previous data, which are facts pertinent to the matter at hand. Imagination and relative thinking also help a scientist formulate a hypothesis that becomes the basis for more observation & or experimentation. The new data help a scientist come to a conclusion that either supports or does not support the hypothesis. Scientific theories are concepts based on a wide range of observations and experiments.
4.) How the Cause of Ulcers Was Discovered:
In 1974 when Barry James Marshall was a young resident physician at Queen Elizabeth II Medical Center in Perth, Australia, he saw many patients who had bleeding stomach ulcers. A pathologist at eh hospital, Dr. J. Robin Warren, told him about finding a particular bacterium, now called Helicobacter pylori, near the site of peptic ulcers (open sores in the stomach). Using the computer networks available at that time, Marshall compiled much data showing a possible correlation between the presence of Helicobacter pylori and the occurrence of both gastritis (inflammation of the stomach) and stomach ulcers. In science, many experiments that involved a considerable number of subjects are required before a conclusion can be reached.
5.) How to do a controlled study?
Often scientists perform an experiment a series of producers to test a hypotheses. When scientists do an experiment, and then try to vary just the experimental variables, in this case, the medications being tested. A control group is not given the medications but one of more test groups are given the medications. To achieve this end, the subjects in the control group can receive a placebo, a treatment that appears to be the same as the administered to the other two groups but actually contains no medication
6.) The info in scientific journals in highly regarded by most scientists because of the reviews process and the fact that it is straight from the horse’s mouth. People should be especially careful about scientific info that is available on the internet which is not well regulated. Reliable credible scientific info can be found at websites w/urls containing.edu government sites such as the National Institutes for health or centers for disease control.
IV. Making Sense of a scientific study:
1.) When evaluating scientific info it is important to consider the type of data given to support it. Anecdotal data, which consists of testimonials by individuals rather that results from reliable sources. Testimonial data are suspect because the effect of whatever is under discussion has not been studied in a large number of subjects. We also have to keep in mind that just because two events occur at the same time, one factor may not be the cause of the other. Data are often depicted in the form of a bar graph or a line graph. A graph shows the relationship between 2 quantities such as the taking of an antibiotic and the disappearance of ulcer. The title and labels can assist you in reading a graph therefore when looking at a graph first check the 2 axels.

Chapter 2
From Atoms to Molecules:

Matter refers to anything that takes up space and has mass. Remember matter can exist as a solid, liquid or gas.
Elements:
An element is one of the basic building blocks of matter: an element cannot be broken down by chemical means. Considering the variety of living and nonliving things in the world, it’s quite remarkable that there are only 92 naturally occurring elements. It is even more surprising that over 90% of the human body is composed of just four elements: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. Every element has a name and a symbol: for example, carbon has been assigned the atomic system C and iron has been assigned the symbol Fe.
Atoms:
An Atom is the smallest unit of an element that still retains the chemical and physical properties of the element. While it is possible to split an atom, an atom is the smallest unit to enter into chemical reactions. For our purposes, it is satisfactory to think of each atom as having a central nucleus and pathways about the nucleus called shells. The subatomic particles, called protons and neutrons, are located in the nucleus and electrons orbit about the nucleus in the shells. Most of an atom is empty space. Protons carry a positive (+) charge, and electrons have a negative (-) charge. Carbon has two outer shells and the outer shell has 4 electrons. Nitrogen has 5 electrons. Oxygen has two shells and the outer shell has 6 electrons. The mass of an atom represents its quantity of matter. The subatomic particles are so light hat their mass is dictated by special designations called atomic mass units. Protons and neutrons are assigned one atomic mass unit.
Isotopes:
Isotopes of the same type of atom differ in the number of neutrons and therefore mass. A radioisotope behaves the same as the stable isotopes of an element. This means that you can put a small amount of radioisotopes in a sample and it becomes a tracer, by which to detect molecular changes. Radioactive substances in the environment can harm cells, damage DNA, and cause cancer. The release of radioactive particles following a nuclear power plant accident can have far-reaching and long lasting effects on human health. The ability of radiation to kill cells is often applied to cancer cells. Radioisotopes can be introduced into the body in a way that allows radiation to destroy on the cancer cells.
Molecules and Compounds:
Atoms often bond w/ one another to form a chemical unit called a molecule. A molecule can contain atoms of the same kind as when an oxygen atom joins with another oxygen atom. When the atoms are different a compound is present. 2types of bonds join atoms; the ionic bond and the covalent bond. Ionic Bonding, atoms with more than one shell are most stable when the outer shill contains eight electrons. During ionic reaction atoms give up or take on electrons in order to achieve a stable outer shell. Ions are particles that carry either a positive or negative charge. The attraction between oppositely chargers sodium ions and chloride ions forms an ionic bond. The resulting compound sodium chloride, is table salt which we use to enliven the taste of foods. Atoms share electrons in covalent bonding.
2. Water & Living Things
Water is the most abundant molecule in living organisms. Water is a polar molecule the oxygen end of the molecule has a slight negative charge. A hydrogen bond occurs whenever a covalently bonded hydrogen is slightly + and attracted to a – charges atom some distance away.
Properties of Water:
Water is a liquid at room temp. We are able to drink it cold because of that. Compounds with low molecular weight are usually gases at room temp. The hydrogen downwind between the water molecules keeps was a liquid and not a gas.
3. Molecules of Life:
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules with specific functions in cells. To breakdown macromolecules the cell uses hydrolysis reaction in which the components of water are added.
4. Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates first and foremost, function for quick and short term energy storage in all organisms, including humans. If the number so a carbon atom is low it is called a simple sugar, or monosaccharide. The designating pentose means a 5-carbon sugar and the designation hexodes means a 6 carbon sugar. Glucose, the hexodes our bodies uses as an immediate source of energy. Many animals store glucose and glycogen. Cellulose if fiber.
5. Lipids:
Fats, Oils, function in long term energy storage. They contain glycerol and three fatty acids. Fats and Oils, Oils which are usually of plant origin are liquid at room temp. Now the droplet disperses an in water which means that emulsification has occurred. This takes place when dirty clothes are watched with soaps.
6. Proteins:
Some proteins are structural, hormones or enzymes that speed chemical reactions up. Here are some of their many functions: Support, Enzymes, Transport, Defense, Hormones, and Motion. Proteins are macromolecules with amino acids subunits. The resulting covalent bond between 2 amino acids is called a peptide bond. When proteins are exposed to extremes in heat and ph, they undergo an inevasible change in shape called denaturation.
7. Nucleic Acids
The 2 types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. Each DNA molecule contains many genes, and genes specify the sequence of the amino acids in proteins. RNA is an intermediary that conveys DNA’S instructions regarding the amino acid sequence in protein. Every Nucleotide is a molecular complex of three types of sub unit molecules. Phosphate, Pentose, sugar and a nitrogen containing base. ATP is a high energy molecule because it bonds are unstable. ATP undergoes hydrolysis to ADP + p which releases energy that is used by cells to do metabolic work.

Chapter 3

Cell Structure and Function

1. What is a cell?

Organisms including humans, are composed of cells a fact that isnt apparent until you compare unicellular organisms with the tissues of multi cellular ones under the micrscope.

2.Cell Theory

As stated by the cell theory a cell is the basic unit of life. Nothis smaller than a living cell. All living thigs are made up of cells. Humans are mulitcellular. New cells arise only from preexisting cells.

3. Cell Size

The small size of cells is explained by considering the surface area to volume ratio of cells.Nutrients enter a cell and wastes exit a cell at its surface.

4. Microscopy and Cell Structure

Micrographs are photographs o objects most often obtained by using the compound light microscope, the transmission electron microscope of the scannin electron microscope. A compound light microscope uses set of glass lenses and light rays passing through the object to magnify objects and the image can be viewed directly by the human eye. A scanning microscope provides a 3 dimensional view of the surface of an object a narrow dimensional view of the surface of an objects.

5. How Cells Are Organized?

The first cells to arise were prokaryotic cells.They lack a membrane enclosed structure where DN is found. Today they are represented by the bacteria and archaea which differ mainly by their chemistry. The eukaryotic cell, which does have a nucleus belived to have evolved from the archaea, which are best known for living in extreme envirotments that may mirror the first enviormant on Earth, being too hot,toom salty, and or too acid for survival. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have a plasma membrane an outer membrane that regulates what enters and exits a cell. All types of cells also contain cytoplams. The cytoplasm contains organells.

6. The Plasma Membrane and How Substances Cross It

The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that selectively regulates the passage of molecules and ions into and out fo the cell. It contains embedded proteins which alow certain substances to cross the plama membrane. For passive mechanisms there is no energy required. They cross it by diffusion and faciliated transport. Active mechanisms require energy and are active transport and endocytosis and extocytosis.

7. The Nucleus and the Production of Proteins

The nucleus houses the DNA, which specifies the order of amino acids in proteins.In the nucleus, chromtin condenses to become chromosomes during cell division. Protein Syntheis occurs in ribsomoes, which are small organells composed of proteins and rRna. *The Endomembrane System* This system consists of the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus lysomose and vesicles.

8. The Cytoskelton and Cell Movement :

The cytoskelton consists of microtubules, acting filaments, and intermidiate filamets that give cells their shape and allows organells to move about the cell. The cilia and flagella which contain micrtubules allow a cell to move.

9. Mitochandria and Cellular Metabolism:

Mitochandria have an inner membrane that forms cristne which projects into the matrix. It also is involved in cellular resperation, which uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. During the cellular resperation mitochandria converts the energy of glucose into the energy of ATP.

CHAPTER 4

Organizatin & Regulation of Body Systems

1. Types of Tissues:

A tissue is composed of specialized cellls of the same type that peforme a common function in the body. Cancers are classified according to the ype of tissue from which they arise.

2. Connective Tissue Connects & Supports:

These tissues are quite diverse in structure and function but, even so all types have three componets: specialized cells, ground substance and protein fibers. White collagen fibers conatin collagens, a protein that gives flexibility and strength. Reticular Fibers, are very thin collgen fibers that are highly branched and form delicate supporting networks.

3. Muscular Tissues Moves the Body:

Muscular Tissue is one of the 3: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. The skeletal and cardiac are striated, cardiac and smooth muscels are involuntary. Skeletal muscels are found in the muscles that are attached to the bones. Smooth muscles are found in the internal organs. Cardic Muscles make up the heart.

4. Nervous Tissue Communicates:

Nervous Tissues are compossed of neurons and several types of neuroglia. Each neuron has dendrities, a cell body, and a axon. Axons are used to conduct nerve impulses.

5. Epithal Tissue protects:

These tisses cover the body and lines its cavities. Types if simple epithial are squmous, cuboidal, and columnar. Certain tissues may hae cilia or microvilli. Stratified epithial have many layers of cells, with only the bottom layer touching the basement membrane.

6. Cell Junctions:

There are 3 common types of juctions between epithical cells. The tight junctions are zipperlike closings between cells, adhesion junctions permit cells to stretch and bend, gap junctions allow small molecule and signals to pass between cells.

7. Integumentary System:

An organ is composed of 2 or more types of tissues working together to peform particular functions. An organ systme contains many different organs, the cooperate to carry out a process, sch as the digestion of food. Skin is the bodies most conspicous system in the body because it covers the body. A subcutaneous layer is found between the skin and any underlying structures, such as muscles or bone. The epidermis is made up of stratified sqquamous epithelium.

8.Organ System:

Integumentary System: contains skin and also includes nails, hair, muscles, etc.

Cardiovascular System: the hear pumps blood and sends it out under pressure.

Lymphatic and Immune System: consists of lymphatic muscles, lymphnodes, spleen and other organs.

Digestive System: consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intenstines.

Respiratory System: the lungs and the tubes.

Urinary System:tubes and kidneys.

Skeletal Sysem: bones and cartilag

Muscular: muscles.

Nervous: brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

Endocrine: Glands

Reproductive: Tubes and Testes.

9. Homeostasis:

Is the relative constancy of the internal enviroment, which is tissue fluid nd blood. All organ systems contribute to homeostasis. The cardio vascualar, respiratory, digestive, and urinary system directly regulate the amount of gases nutrients and watese in the blood. Negative Feedback mechanisms keep the enviorment relatily stable.

Cell Lab Photographs

Items used to identify the different parts of a cell.

This is an overall view of the cell completly before all parts were labeled.

This image represents: Golgi Body(candy wrapper), cytoplasm(jello), centrosome(gum ball), cell membrane(plastic bag)

This image is labeling: Nucleus(peach), Nucleolus(peach pit), Nuclear Membrane(peach skin), Lysosome(m&m's), and Mitochandria(raisins).

This last image is labeling the Rough endoplasmic Reticulum(sour gummy worm), smooth endoplasmic reticulum(gummy work), vacuole(lemon head), and ribosome(sprinkles).

Cell Lab Write Up

Cell Lab
This is a model of a “Cell” using some everyday baking items.
List of items used:
· Large bowl
· Pot to boil water in
· Measuring Cup
· Gallon size Plastic Bag
· Jell-O
· Peach
· Gummy Worms
· Sour Gummy Worms
· Lemon Drops
· Candy Wrapper
· M&M’S
· Sprinkles
· Toothpicks
· Raisins
· Gumball
*Process To Creating The Cell*
I first boiled about 1/12 cups of water then mixed the jello along with the boiling water into a large bowl. I stirred it around until the jello was all dissolved; I then added the same amount of cold water. I poured the jello into a gallon size plastic bag and placed it inside a cereal size bowl and placed it in the fridge for about 3 and half hours. After it had set up I than began inserting items and labeling the items accordingly.
*Items Presented in Cell & description*
1. Cell Membrane – This is t he thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. It is represented by the plastic bag.
2. Centrosome – This is a small body located near the nucleus. This is where microtubules are made. During cell division, the centrosome divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. It is represented by a gum ball.
3. Cytoplasm – This is the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located. It is represented by the jello.
4. Golgi body – It is a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. It produces the membranes that surround the lysosomes.. It is represented by folded ribbons of a hard candy.
5. Lysosome – This is round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing digestive enzymes. This is where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place. They are represented by M&M's.
6. Mitochondrion – A spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections. The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP for the cell. Represented by raisins.
7. Nuclear membrane - The membrane that surrounds the nucleus. It is represented by the peach skin.
8. Nucleolus – Is an organelle within the nucleus. It is where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some cells have more than one nucleolus. It is represented by the peach pit.
9. Nucleus – A spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell protein and contains DNA. It is represented by the peach.
9. Ribosome –A small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis. They are represented by candy sprinkles.
10. Rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) A vast system of interconnected, infolded sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (. Rough ER is covered with ribosome’s that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transports materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cistern the Golgi body. It is represented by sour gummy worms.
11. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm. The space within the ER is called the ER lumen. Smooth ER transports materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids and membrane proteins. It is represented by gummy worms.
12. Vacuole – A fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell. They are represented by lemon heads.
*What I learned*
After I completed this project I have a better understanding of just how a human cell works. I always knew the different objects that made up a cell but never really had a good understanding of what exactly they were and what their functions were. I feel much more confident now after completing the cell lab.
*Was It Fun?*
I really enjoyed this lab project a lot. I have done several labs over the years in school and never before have I done one like this. I was able to do it and have my boyfriend assist me when needed and he actually enjoyed it as well. It is a fun project while at the same time a learning one at that. Because after everything you learned while reading the chapters it’s like you finally put it all together in a model.

Compendium Review Pictures 1-4

HUMAN SKIN Anatomy

Neurons and Neuroglia in the Brain

Fluid-Moasic Model of Plasma Membrane Structure

Levels of Protein Organization

ANIMAL CELL

DNA & RNA Structure

Low levels of Radiation

Flow Diagram for the scientific method

Levels of biological organization.

Unit 1 Lab 1 Write Up

Microscope Lab Write Up
Unit 1

Throughout the years there have been several useful and important inventions. However, the most useful invention was the microscope. The first microscope was invented 413 years ago. The three founding fathers of microscopy were: Hans & Zacharias Janssen, Robert Hooke, Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Although the microscopes in earlier years lacked good quality lenses, over the years fellow fathers improved them.
The two main kinds of microscopes are light and electron; they vary a great amount from each other though. An electron microscope is a scientific instrument that uses a beam of high energetic electrons to examine objects on a fine scale. This electron microscope can examine several different pieces of info. Topography is the surface features of an object or "how it looks", its texture; direct relation between these features and materials properties. Morphology is the shape and size of the particles making up the object; direct relation between these structures and materials properties. Composition is the elements and compounds that the object is composed of and the relative amounts of them; direct relationship between composition and materials properties. Crystallographic Information How the atoms are arranged in the object; direct relation between these arrangements and materials properties. Whereas electron microscopes make it possible for us to distinguish molecules individually that has biological importance. They are not completely user friendly though. They are all equipped with a high power vacuum underneath of them which makes it impossible for a living specimen to show movements that characterize living cells. Light microscopes enable us to see living cells in action. At times operating a light microscope can be difficult to use because when trying to enhance the contrast between pale cells & the pale surroundings so that cell structures are visible along with their movement.
A microscope is a high precision optical instrument that uses a lens or a combination of lenses to produce highly magnified images of small specimens or objects especially when they are too small to be seen by the naked eye. A light source is used to make it easier to see the subject matter. People may view that telescopes are the same as a microscope when in return they lack few characteristics. When you look through a microscope the object is right below your finger tips, a telescope is miles away.

*Listed below are the parts that make up a microscope:

Head: Top part of the microscope. Contains mirrors that reflect images to the ocular lenses. Can rotate if set screw is loosened.

Arm: Vertical piece. Supports the head of the microscope, the stage, the condenser, and the focusing controls.

Base: Horizontal piece. This supports the microscope.

Stage: The platform that supports the slide. Hole in center allows light from condenser to pass through. Supports slide holder.

Slide holder: This holds the specimen slide in position. Controls movement of slide.

Knobs for moving slides: Control fine movement of the slide holder, front-to-back and side-to-side.

Coarse focus control: Moves stage up and down quickly to bring image of the specimen into approximate focus.

Fine focus control: Moves stage up and down slowly to bring image into final focus.

Revolving nosepiece: Holds three objective lenses, allows them to be switched.

Sub stage light source: Located above base. Includes a field diaphragm and a silver field diaphragm adjusting ring used to control width of light beam passing up to the condenser.

On/Off switch: Turns light source on and off.

Intensity Control: Changes the intensity (brightness) of light from the light source.

Voltmeter: Measures the voltage to the light source. Should not exceed half white and half green.

Condensers: Series of lenses that focus light on the specimen slide.

Overall the microscope has given such a farther look into medical field than ever before. Without the microscope the possibilities that there are now days would have never been possible before. The most common type of microscope is , the light microscope, it uses a glass lenses to focus light and create a high resolution image. All of the miscellaneous parts of the microscope work together to form a piece of technology that has expanded technology farther than ever. Without the microscope we would never see the entire living organism with the naked eye.

Lab 1 Microscope Photos

This here is a photo of a light micrscope. In the write up you will be able to get the list of details of what each labeled part does.

This image was captured of the onion root tip. It was viewed at 40x magnfication. I viewed it through the virtual microscope tour.

This image of the “e” was captured under 4 x magnification. I viewed it through virtual compound Microscope.

This image is of a Cheek Smear. It is viewed through the Virtual Microscope.