Ch. 1-4 Rev.

Compendium Review
UNIT 1 CELLS & GENETICS

1.) The Characteristics of Life
Biology is that scientific study of life, and human biology is a specialty in this field. Humans are part of the natural world; specifically the world of living things such as long-necked giraffes, butterflies, giant sequoia trees, low-laying mushrooms and colorful angelfish. Living things: are organized, from atoms to the biosphere, take materials and energy from the environment, reproduce, grow and develop various stages from fertilization to death, are homeostatic, respond to stimuli, have an evolutionary history.
2.) Life is Organized
A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism. Humans are multi cellular because they are composed of many different types of cells. A tissue is a group of similar cell’s that perform a particular function. Several types of tissues make up an organ, and each organ belongs to an organ system. The organs of an organ system work together to accomplish a common purpose. The brain works with the spinal cord to send commands to body parts by way of nerves. Organisms, such as tress and human, are a collection of organ systems. All the members of one species in a particular area belong to a population. The populations of various animals and plants in the forest make up a community. The community of populations interacts with the physical systems make up the biosphere.
3,) Acquiring Materials and Energy.
Human beings cannot maintain their organization or carry on life’s activities without an outside source of materials and energy. Food provides nutrient molecules, which are used as building blocks or for energy. It takes energy (work) to maintain the organization of the cell and of the organism. Most living things can also convert energy into motion.
4.) Reproducing
Reproduction is a fundamental characteristic of life. When living things reproduce, the create a cop of themselves and ensure the continuance of their own kind. The presence of genes, in the form of DNA molecules, allows cells and organisms to make more of themselves. DNA contains the hereditary information that directs the structure of the cell and its metabolism, all the chemical reactions in the cell. Before reproduction occurs, DNA is replicated so that exact copies of genes are passed on to offspring.
5.) Growing and Developing
In humans, development includes all the changes that occur from the time the egg is fertilized until death and therefore all changes that occur during childhood adolescence and adulthood. Development also includes the repair that takes place following an injury.
6.) Being Homeostatic
Together, the organ systems maintain homeostasis and internal environment for cells that usually varies only within certain limits. The digestive system takes in nutrient, and respiratory system exchanges gases with the environment. The cardiovascular system distributes nutrients and oxygen to the cells and picks up their wastes. The metabolic waste precuts of cells are excreted by the urinary system.
7.) Responding to Stimuli:
Living things respond to external stimuli, often by moving toward or away from a stimulus such as the sight of food. Homeostasis would be impossible without the ability of the body to respond to stimuli. Response to external stimuli is more apparent to us because it does involve movement as when we quickly remove a hand from a hot stove. If blood pressure rises too high, the brain directs blood vessels to dilate, helping to restore normal blood pressure.
8.) Life Has an Evolutionary History:
Evolution is the process by which a species changes through time. Each successive generation will include more members with the new variation that represents and adaptation to the environment. Evolution which has been going on since the origin of life exists, explains both the unity and the diversity of life. All organisms share the same characteristics of life because their ancestry can be traced to the first cell or cells. Organisms are diverse because they are adapted to different ways of life.
II. Humans Are Related to Other Animals:
1.) Living things are now classified into their domains. O f these domain Eukarya contains four kingdoms, and humans are vertebrates in the kingdom Animalia. Vertebrates have a nerve cord that is protected by a vertebral column, who’s repeating units indicate that we and other vertebrates are segmented animals. Among that vertebrate, we are mammals and so are apes, from which we are distinguished by our 1.) Highly developed brains, 2.) Completely upright stance, 3.) Creative language and 4.)Ability to use a wide spread variety of tools.
2.) Culture encompasses human activities and products that are passed on from one generation to the next outside of direct biological inheritance. Human skills have also produced a rich heritage in the arts and sciences. The culture of highly civilized people, in particular, gives us the impression we are separate from other animals and make us think we are not a part of nature.
3.) Humans Are Members of the Biosphere:
All living things on Earth are part of the biosphere, a living network that spans the surface of the Earth into the atmosphere and down into the soil and seas. If it were not for microorganisms that decompose the waste we dump into the biosphere, it would soon cover the entire surface of the Earth. Aside from supplying us with fish as a food source, freshwater ecosystems such as rivers and lakes provide us with drinking water and water to irrigate crops. Most of our crops and prescription drugs were originally derived from plants that grew wild in and ecosystem.
4.) Humans Threaten the Biosphere :
The human population tends to modify existing ecosystems of its own purposes. Almost all natural ecosystems are altered by human activities, which also reduce biodiversity. The present biodiversity of our planet has been estimated to be as high as 15 million species and so far fewer than 2 million have been identified and named. Extinction is the death of a species or larger group of organisms. It is estimated that presently, we are losing as many as 400 species per day due to human activities. One of the major bioethical issues of our time is preservation of the biosphere and biodiversity.
III: Science as a Process
1.) Science is a way of knowing about the natural world.
2.) Importance of Scientific Theories in Biology:
The ultimate goal in science is to understand the natural world in terms of scientific theories. Scientific theories are concepts that tell us about the order and the patters within the natural world; in other words, how the natural world is organized. Evolution is the unifying concept of biology because it makes sense of what we know about living things. Because the theory of evolution has been supports by so many observations and experiments for over a hundred years, some biologists refer to the principle of evolution. This term is prefers terminology for theories that are generally accepted as valid by an overwhelming number of scientists.
3.) The Scientific Method Has Steps:
Unlike the other types of info available to us, scientific info is acquired by a process known as the scientific method. After making initial observations, a scientist will, most likely study any previous data, which are facts pertinent to the matter at hand. Imagination and relative thinking also help a scientist formulate a hypothesis that becomes the basis for more observation & or experimentation. The new data help a scientist come to a conclusion that either supports or does not support the hypothesis. Scientific theories are concepts based on a wide range of observations and experiments.
4.) How the Cause of Ulcers Was Discovered:
In 1974 when Barry James Marshall was a young resident physician at Queen Elizabeth II Medical Center in Perth, Australia, he saw many patients who had bleeding stomach ulcers. A pathologist at eh hospital, Dr. J. Robin Warren, told him about finding a particular bacterium, now called Helicobacter pylori, near the site of peptic ulcers (open sores in the stomach). Using the computer networks available at that time, Marshall compiled much data showing a possible correlation between the presence of Helicobacter pylori and the occurrence of both gastritis (inflammation of the stomach) and stomach ulcers. In science, many experiments that involved a considerable number of subjects are required before a conclusion can be reached.
5.) How to do a controlled study?
Often scientists perform an experiment a series of producers to test a hypotheses. When scientists do an experiment, and then try to vary just the experimental variables, in this case, the medications being tested. A control group is not given the medications but one of more test groups are given the medications. To achieve this end, the subjects in the control group can receive a placebo, a treatment that appears to be the same as the administered to the other two groups but actually contains no medication
6.) The info in scientific journals in highly regarded by most scientists because of the reviews process and the fact that it is straight from the horse’s mouth. People should be especially careful about scientific info that is available on the internet which is not well regulated. Reliable credible scientific info can be found at websites w/urls containing.edu government sites such as the National Institutes for health or centers for disease control.
IV. Making Sense of a scientific study:
1.) When evaluating scientific info it is important to consider the type of data given to support it. Anecdotal data, which consists of testimonials by individuals rather that results from reliable sources. Testimonial data are suspect because the effect of whatever is under discussion has not been studied in a large number of subjects. We also have to keep in mind that just because two events occur at the same time, one factor may not be the cause of the other. Data are often depicted in the form of a bar graph or a line graph. A graph shows the relationship between 2 quantities such as the taking of an antibiotic and the disappearance of ulcer. The title and labels can assist you in reading a graph therefore when looking at a graph first check the 2 axels.

Chapter 2
From Atoms to Molecules:

Matter refers to anything that takes up space and has mass. Remember matter can exist as a solid, liquid or gas.
Elements:
An element is one of the basic building blocks of matter: an element cannot be broken down by chemical means. Considering the variety of living and nonliving things in the world, it’s quite remarkable that there are only 92 naturally occurring elements. It is even more surprising that over 90% of the human body is composed of just four elements: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. Every element has a name and a symbol: for example, carbon has been assigned the atomic system C and iron has been assigned the symbol Fe.
Atoms:
An Atom is the smallest unit of an element that still retains the chemical and physical properties of the element. While it is possible to split an atom, an atom is the smallest unit to enter into chemical reactions. For our purposes, it is satisfactory to think of each atom as having a central nucleus and pathways about the nucleus called shells. The subatomic particles, called protons and neutrons, are located in the nucleus and electrons orbit about the nucleus in the shells. Most of an atom is empty space. Protons carry a positive (+) charge, and electrons have a negative (-) charge. Carbon has two outer shells and the outer shell has 4 electrons. Nitrogen has 5 electrons. Oxygen has two shells and the outer shell has 6 electrons. The mass of an atom represents its quantity of matter. The subatomic particles are so light hat their mass is dictated by special designations called atomic mass units. Protons and neutrons are assigned one atomic mass unit.
Isotopes:
Isotopes of the same type of atom differ in the number of neutrons and therefore mass. A radioisotope behaves the same as the stable isotopes of an element. This means that you can put a small amount of radioisotopes in a sample and it becomes a tracer, by which to detect molecular changes. Radioactive substances in the environment can harm cells, damage DNA, and cause cancer. The release of radioactive particles following a nuclear power plant accident can have far-reaching and long lasting effects on human health. The ability of radiation to kill cells is often applied to cancer cells. Radioisotopes can be introduced into the body in a way that allows radiation to destroy on the cancer cells.
Molecules and Compounds:
Atoms often bond w/ one another to form a chemical unit called a molecule. A molecule can contain atoms of the same kind as when an oxygen atom joins with another oxygen atom. When the atoms are different a compound is present. 2types of bonds join atoms; the ionic bond and the covalent bond. Ionic Bonding, atoms with more than one shell are most stable when the outer shill contains eight electrons. During ionic reaction atoms give up or take on electrons in order to achieve a stable outer shell. Ions are particles that carry either a positive or negative charge. The attraction between oppositely chargers sodium ions and chloride ions forms an ionic bond. The resulting compound sodium chloride, is table salt which we use to enliven the taste of foods. Atoms share electrons in covalent bonding.
2. Water & Living Things
Water is the most abundant molecule in living organisms. Water is a polar molecule the oxygen end of the molecule has a slight negative charge. A hydrogen bond occurs whenever a covalently bonded hydrogen is slightly + and attracted to a – charges atom some distance away.
Properties of Water:
Water is a liquid at room temp. We are able to drink it cold because of that. Compounds with low molecular weight are usually gases at room temp. The hydrogen downwind between the water molecules keeps was a liquid and not a gas.
3. Molecules of Life:
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules with specific functions in cells. To breakdown macromolecules the cell uses hydrolysis reaction in which the components of water are added.
4. Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates first and foremost, function for quick and short term energy storage in all organisms, including humans. If the number so a carbon atom is low it is called a simple sugar, or monosaccharide. The designating pentose means a 5-carbon sugar and the designation hexodes means a 6 carbon sugar. Glucose, the hexodes our bodies uses as an immediate source of energy. Many animals store glucose and glycogen. Cellulose if fiber.
5. Lipids:
Fats, Oils, function in long term energy storage. They contain glycerol and three fatty acids. Fats and Oils, Oils which are usually of plant origin are liquid at room temp. Now the droplet disperses an in water which means that emulsification has occurred. This takes place when dirty clothes are watched with soaps.
6. Proteins:
Some proteins are structural, hormones or enzymes that speed chemical reactions up. Here are some of their many functions: Support, Enzymes, Transport, Defense, Hormones, and Motion. Proteins are macromolecules with amino acids subunits. The resulting covalent bond between 2 amino acids is called a peptide bond. When proteins are exposed to extremes in heat and ph, they undergo an inevasible change in shape called denaturation.
7. Nucleic Acids
The 2 types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. Each DNA molecule contains many genes, and genes specify the sequence of the amino acids in proteins. RNA is an intermediary that conveys DNA’S instructions regarding the amino acid sequence in protein. Every Nucleotide is a molecular complex of three types of sub unit molecules. Phosphate, Pentose, sugar and a nitrogen containing base. ATP is a high energy molecule because it bonds are unstable. ATP undergoes hydrolysis to ADP + p which releases energy that is used by cells to do metabolic work.

Chapter 3

Cell Structure and Function

1. What is a cell?

Organisms including humans, are composed of cells a fact that isnt apparent until you compare unicellular organisms with the tissues of multi cellular ones under the micrscope.

2.Cell Theory

As stated by the cell theory a cell is the basic unit of life. Nothis smaller than a living cell. All living thigs are made up of cells. Humans are mulitcellular. New cells arise only from preexisting cells.

3. Cell Size

The small size of cells is explained by considering the surface area to volume ratio of cells.Nutrients enter a cell and wastes exit a cell at its surface.

4. Microscopy and Cell Structure

Micrographs are photographs o objects most often obtained by using the compound light microscope, the transmission electron microscope of the scannin electron microscope. A compound light microscope uses set of glass lenses and light rays passing through the object to magnify objects and the image can be viewed directly by the human eye. A scanning microscope provides a 3 dimensional view of the surface of an object a narrow dimensional view of the surface of an objects.

5. How Cells Are Organized?

The first cells to arise were prokaryotic cells.They lack a membrane enclosed structure where DN is found. Today they are represented by the bacteria and archaea which differ mainly by their chemistry. The eukaryotic cell, which does have a nucleus belived to have evolved from the archaea, which are best known for living in extreme envirotments that may mirror the first enviormant on Earth, being too hot,toom salty, and or too acid for survival. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have a plasma membrane an outer membrane that regulates what enters and exits a cell. All types of cells also contain cytoplams. The cytoplasm contains organells.

6. The Plasma Membrane and How Substances Cross It

The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that selectively regulates the passage of molecules and ions into and out fo the cell. It contains embedded proteins which alow certain substances to cross the plama membrane. For passive mechanisms there is no energy required. They cross it by diffusion and faciliated transport. Active mechanisms require energy and are active transport and endocytosis and extocytosis.

7. The Nucleus and the Production of Proteins

The nucleus houses the DNA, which specifies the order of amino acids in proteins.In the nucleus, chromtin condenses to become chromosomes during cell division. Protein Syntheis occurs in ribsomoes, which are small organells composed of proteins and rRna. *The Endomembrane System* This system consists of the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus lysomose and vesicles.

8. The Cytoskelton and Cell Movement :

The cytoskelton consists of microtubules, acting filaments, and intermidiate filamets that give cells their shape and allows organells to move about the cell. The cilia and flagella which contain micrtubules allow a cell to move.

9. Mitochandria and Cellular Metabolism:

Mitochandria have an inner membrane that forms cristne which projects into the matrix. It also is involved in cellular resperation, which uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. During the cellular resperation mitochandria converts the energy of glucose into the energy of ATP.

CHAPTER 4

Organizatin & Regulation of Body Systems

1. Types of Tissues:

A tissue is composed of specialized cellls of the same type that peforme a common function in the body. Cancers are classified according to the ype of tissue from which they arise.

2. Connective Tissue Connects & Supports:

These tissues are quite diverse in structure and function but, even so all types have three componets: specialized cells, ground substance and protein fibers. White collagen fibers conatin collagens, a protein that gives flexibility and strength. Reticular Fibers, are very thin collgen fibers that are highly branched and form delicate supporting networks.

3. Muscular Tissues Moves the Body:

Muscular Tissue is one of the 3: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. The skeletal and cardiac are striated, cardiac and smooth muscels are involuntary. Skeletal muscels are found in the muscles that are attached to the bones. Smooth muscles are found in the internal organs. Cardic Muscles make up the heart.

4. Nervous Tissue Communicates:

Nervous Tissues are compossed of neurons and several types of neuroglia. Each neuron has dendrities, a cell body, and a axon. Axons are used to conduct nerve impulses.

5. Epithal Tissue protects:

These tisses cover the body and lines its cavities. Types if simple epithial are squmous, cuboidal, and columnar. Certain tissues may hae cilia or microvilli. Stratified epithial have many layers of cells, with only the bottom layer touching the basement membrane.

6. Cell Junctions:

There are 3 common types of juctions between epithical cells. The tight junctions are zipperlike closings between cells, adhesion junctions permit cells to stretch and bend, gap junctions allow small molecule and signals to pass between cells.

7. Integumentary System:

An organ is composed of 2 or more types of tissues working together to peform particular functions. An organ systme contains many different organs, the cooperate to carry out a process, sch as the digestion of food. Skin is the bodies most conspicous system in the body because it covers the body. A subcutaneous layer is found between the skin and any underlying structures, such as muscles or bone. The epidermis is made up of stratified sqquamous epithelium.

8.Organ System:

Integumentary System: contains skin and also includes nails, hair, muscles, etc.

Cardiovascular System: the hear pumps blood and sends it out under pressure.

Lymphatic and Immune System: consists of lymphatic muscles, lymphnodes, spleen and other organs.

Digestive System: consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intenstines.

Respiratory System: the lungs and the tubes.

Urinary System:tubes and kidneys.

Skeletal Sysem: bones and cartilag

Muscular: muscles.

Nervous: brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

Endocrine: Glands

Reproductive: Tubes and Testes.

9. Homeostasis:

Is the relative constancy of the internal enviroment, which is tissue fluid nd blood. All organ systems contribute to homeostasis. The cardio vascualar, respiratory, digestive, and urinary system directly regulate the amount of gases nutrients and watese in the blood. Negative Feedback mechanisms keep the enviorment relatily stable.