CHAPTERS 5, 6 &7 Review
CHAPTER 5
5.1) Overview of the Cardiovascular SystemThe cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood and blood vessels take blood to and from the capillaries, where exchanges of nutrients for & from wastes occur with tissue cells. Blood is refreshed at the lungs where gas exchange occurs. It is refreshed at the lungs, where gas exchanges occur.5.2) The Types of Blood VesselsArteries: take blood away from the heart. They have the thickest walls which allow them to withstand blood pressure.Capillaries: Exchange of substance occurs.Veins: They take blood to the heart. Veins have relatively weak walls with vales that keep the blood flowing in one direction.5.3) The Heart Is a Double PumpThe heart has the right and left side. Each side has an atrium and a ventricle. Vales keep the blood moving in the correct direction. The atrium receives o2 poor blood from the body, and the ventricle pumps it into the pulmonary circuit. During the cardiac cycle the SA mode initiates the heartbeat by causing the atria to contract. The heart sounds are due to the closing of the atrioventicles valves.5.4) Features of the Cardiovascular SystemPulse: The pulse rate indicates the heartbeat rate.Blood pressure moves blood in arteries by the beating of the heart accounts for the flow of blood in the arteries.Blood flow is slow in the capillaries: The reduced velocity of blood flow in capillaries facilitates exchange of nutrients and wastes in the tissues.Blood Flow in Veins Returns Blood to the Heart: This is caused by skeletal muscle contraction, the presence of valves, and respiratory movements.5.5) Two Cardiovascular Pathways
The cardiovascular system is divided into the pulmonary circuit and the systematic circuit. Pulmonary Circuit is the blood traveling to and from the lungs. The systemic Circuit the aorta divides into blood vessels that serve the bodies organs and cells.5.6) Exchange at the CapillariesAt the arterial end of a cardiovascular capillary, blood pressure is greater than osmotic pressure; therefore, water leaves the capillary. In the midsection oxygen and nutrients diffuse out of the capillary while carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuse into the capillary. At the venous end, osmotic pressure created by the presence of proteins exceeds blood pressure, causing water to enter the capillary.5.7) Cardiovascular Disease is the leading cause of death in the Western Countries. Hypertension and atherosclerosis can lead to a stroke, heart attack of an aneurysm. Following a heart healthy diet, getting regular exercise maintaining a proper weight and not smoking are key to fighting the disease.
CHAPTER 6
6.1) Blood: An OverviewBlood is a specialized bodily fluid (technically a tissue) that is composed of a liquid called blood plasma and blood cells suspended within the plasma. The blood cells present in blood are red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (including both leukocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets (also called thrombocytes). Plasma is predominantly water containing dissolved proteins, salts and many other substances; and makes up about 55% of blood by volume. Mammals have red blood, which is bright red when oxygenated, due to hemoglobin. Some animals, such as the horseshoe crab use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin.6.2) Red Blood Cells and Transport of OxygenRed blood cells perform the most important blood duty. A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells which are constantly traveling through your body delivering oxygen and removing waste. If they weren't, your body would slowly die. Red blood cells are red only because they contain protein chemicals called hemoglobin which is bright red in color. Hemoglobin contains the element Iron, making it an excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide. As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the hemoglobin. As the blood passes through the body's tissue, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells. The empty hemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases, transporting it away.6.3) White Blood Cells and Defense against DiseaseWhite blood cells, or leukocytes, are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Several different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.6.4 Platelets and Blood ClottingWhen blood vessels are cut or damaged, the loss of blood from the system must be stopped before shock and possible death occur. This is accomplished by solidification of the blood, a process called coagulation or clotting.A blood clot consists ofa plug of platelets enmeshed in aNetwork of insoluble fibrin molecules.Platelet aggregation and fibrin formation both require the proteolytic enzyme thrombin.6.5) Blood Typing and TransfusionsA blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoprotein’s or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system, and some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens, that stem from one allele (or very closely linked genes), collectively form a blood group system.Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 29 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion.Blood Types: Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can donate blood only to another group AB individual.Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups A or AB.Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups B or AB.Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, but their blood serum contains IgM anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies against the A and B blood group antigens. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (ie A, B, O or AB). If anyone needs a blood transfusion in a dire emergency, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O Negative blood can be issued.6.6 HomeostasisA relatively stable state of equilibrium or a tendency toward such a state between the different but interdependent elements or groups of elements of an organism, population, or group.Strong homeostasis, wherein structure and reserve do not change in composition. Since the amount of reserve and structure can vary, this allows a particular change in the composition of the whole body (as explained by the Dynamic Energy Budget theory).Weak homeostasis, wherein the ratio of the amounts of reserve and structure becomes constant as long as food availability is constant, even when the organism grows. This means that the whole body composition is constant during growth in constant environments.Structural homeostasis, wherein the sub-individual structures grow in harmony with the whole individual; the relative proportions of the individuals remain constant.
CHAPTER 7
7.1) Microbes, Pathogens and YouThey perform valuable services but they also cause disease. Bacteria is Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods to spirals. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles.7.2) The lymphatic SystemThe lymphatic system is a system of thin tubes that runs throughout the body. These tubes are called 'lymph vessels'. You may also hear those called 'lymphatic vessels'. The lymphatic system is like the blood circulation - the tubes branch through all parts of the body like the arteries and veins that carry blood. Except that the lymphatic system carries a colorless liquid called 'lymph'. Lymph is a clear fluid that circulates around the body tissues. It contains a high number of lymphocytes (white blood cells). Plasma leaks out of the capillaries to surround and bathe the body tissues. This then drains into the lymph vessels.7.3) Nonspecific DefensesImmunity involves nonspecific and specific defenses. The nonspecific defenses include, barriers to entry, the inflammatory reaction which involves the phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages.7.4) Specific DefensesSpecific Defense Requires B cells and T cells, also called B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B cells are not only produced in the bone marrow but also mature there. BCRs bind soluble antigens (like diphtheria toxin, the protein introduced into your body in the DTP vaccine).The bound antigen molecules are engulfed into the B cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis.The antigen is digested into fragmentsWhich are then displayed at the cell surface nestled inside a class II histocompatibility molecule.Helper T cells specific for this structure (i.e., with complementary TCRs) bind the B cell andsecrete lymphokines that:stimulate the B cell to enter the cell cycle and develop, by repeated mitosis, into a clone of cells with identical BCRs;switch from synthesizing their BCRs as integral membrane proteins to a soluble version;differentiate into plasma cells that secrete these soluble BCRs, which we now call antibodies.The surface of each T cell also displays thousands of identical T cell receptors (TCRs).There are two types of T cells that differ in their TCR.
7.5) Accuired Immunity
This type of immunity occurs in response to infection called ADAPTIVE as the immune system must adapt itself to previously unseen molecules. Following recovery from certain infections with a particular micro-organism, individuals will never again develop infection with the same organism, but can become infected with other micro-organisms, i.e. he/she is protected against one micro-organism. This form of protection is called IMMUNITY and an individual is said to be IMMUNISED against that organism. The induction of immunity by infection or with a vaccine is called ACTIVE IMMUNITY.
7.6) Hypersensitivity Reactions
Allergic Responses occur when the immune system reacts vigourlousy to substances. Immediate allergic reactions responses, usulayy are due to the activity of antibodies. Delayed allergic reactions are due to the T CELLS.
The cardiovascular system is divided into the pulmonary circuit and the systematic circuit. Pulmonary Circuit is the blood traveling to and from the lungs. The systemic Circuit the aorta divides into blood vessels that serve the bodies organs and cells.5.6) Exchange at the CapillariesAt the arterial end of a cardiovascular capillary, blood pressure is greater than osmotic pressure; therefore, water leaves the capillary. In the midsection oxygen and nutrients diffuse out of the capillary while carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuse into the capillary. At the venous end, osmotic pressure created by the presence of proteins exceeds blood pressure, causing water to enter the capillary.5.7) Cardiovascular Disease is the leading cause of death in the Western Countries. Hypertension and atherosclerosis can lead to a stroke, heart attack of an aneurysm. Following a heart healthy diet, getting regular exercise maintaining a proper weight and not smoking are key to fighting the disease.
CHAPTER 6
6.1) Blood: An OverviewBlood is a specialized bodily fluid (technically a tissue) that is composed of a liquid called blood plasma and blood cells suspended within the plasma. The blood cells present in blood are red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (including both leukocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets (also called thrombocytes). Plasma is predominantly water containing dissolved proteins, salts and many other substances; and makes up about 55% of blood by volume. Mammals have red blood, which is bright red when oxygenated, due to hemoglobin. Some animals, such as the horseshoe crab use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin.6.2) Red Blood Cells and Transport of OxygenRed blood cells perform the most important blood duty. A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells which are constantly traveling through your body delivering oxygen and removing waste. If they weren't, your body would slowly die. Red blood cells are red only because they contain protein chemicals called hemoglobin which is bright red in color. Hemoglobin contains the element Iron, making it an excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide. As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the hemoglobin. As the blood passes through the body's tissue, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells. The empty hemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases, transporting it away.6.3) White Blood Cells and Defense against DiseaseWhite blood cells, or leukocytes, are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Several different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.6.4 Platelets and Blood ClottingWhen blood vessels are cut or damaged, the loss of blood from the system must be stopped before shock and possible death occur. This is accomplished by solidification of the blood, a process called coagulation or clotting.A blood clot consists ofa plug of platelets enmeshed in aNetwork of insoluble fibrin molecules.Platelet aggregation and fibrin formation both require the proteolytic enzyme thrombin.6.5) Blood Typing and TransfusionsA blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoprotein’s or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system, and some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens, that stem from one allele (or very closely linked genes), collectively form a blood group system.Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 29 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion.Blood Types: Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can donate blood only to another group AB individual.Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups A or AB.Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups B or AB.Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, but their blood serum contains IgM anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies against the A and B blood group antigens. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (ie A, B, O or AB). If anyone needs a blood transfusion in a dire emergency, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O Negative blood can be issued.6.6 HomeostasisA relatively stable state of equilibrium or a tendency toward such a state between the different but interdependent elements or groups of elements of an organism, population, or group.Strong homeostasis, wherein structure and reserve do not change in composition. Since the amount of reserve and structure can vary, this allows a particular change in the composition of the whole body (as explained by the Dynamic Energy Budget theory).Weak homeostasis, wherein the ratio of the amounts of reserve and structure becomes constant as long as food availability is constant, even when the organism grows. This means that the whole body composition is constant during growth in constant environments.Structural homeostasis, wherein the sub-individual structures grow in harmony with the whole individual; the relative proportions of the individuals remain constant.
CHAPTER 7
7.1) Microbes, Pathogens and YouThey perform valuable services but they also cause disease. Bacteria is Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods to spirals. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles.7.2) The lymphatic SystemThe lymphatic system is a system of thin tubes that runs throughout the body. These tubes are called 'lymph vessels'. You may also hear those called 'lymphatic vessels'. The lymphatic system is like the blood circulation - the tubes branch through all parts of the body like the arteries and veins that carry blood. Except that the lymphatic system carries a colorless liquid called 'lymph'. Lymph is a clear fluid that circulates around the body tissues. It contains a high number of lymphocytes (white blood cells). Plasma leaks out of the capillaries to surround and bathe the body tissues. This then drains into the lymph vessels.7.3) Nonspecific DefensesImmunity involves nonspecific and specific defenses. The nonspecific defenses include, barriers to entry, the inflammatory reaction which involves the phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages.7.4) Specific DefensesSpecific Defense Requires B cells and T cells, also called B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B cells are not only produced in the bone marrow but also mature there. BCRs bind soluble antigens (like diphtheria toxin, the protein introduced into your body in the DTP vaccine).The bound antigen molecules are engulfed into the B cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis.The antigen is digested into fragmentsWhich are then displayed at the cell surface nestled inside a class II histocompatibility molecule.Helper T cells specific for this structure (i.e., with complementary TCRs) bind the B cell andsecrete lymphokines that:stimulate the B cell to enter the cell cycle and develop, by repeated mitosis, into a clone of cells with identical BCRs;switch from synthesizing their BCRs as integral membrane proteins to a soluble version;differentiate into plasma cells that secrete these soluble BCRs, which we now call antibodies.The surface of each T cell also displays thousands of identical T cell receptors (TCRs).There are two types of T cells that differ in their TCR.
7.5) Accuired Immunity
This type of immunity occurs in response to infection called ADAPTIVE as the immune system must adapt itself to previously unseen molecules. Following recovery from certain infections with a particular micro-organism, individuals will never again develop infection with the same organism, but can become infected with other micro-organisms, i.e. he/she is protected against one micro-organism. This form of protection is called IMMUNITY and an individual is said to be IMMUNISED against that organism. The induction of immunity by infection or with a vaccine is called ACTIVE IMMUNITY.
7.6) Hypersensitivity Reactions
Allergic Responses occur when the immune system reacts vigourlousy to substances. Immediate allergic reactions responses, usulayy are due to the activity of antibodies. Delayed allergic reactions are due to the T CELLS.
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