Ch. 11&12 Write Up

Chapter 11 & 12 Review

Chapter 11 Review
11.1 Overview of the Skeletal System:
Skeletal system is the biological system providing support in living organisms. Skin, muscle and bones allow movement. Skin - pliable covering. Muscles do actual moving. Bones give anchor to move against. The skeleton functions not only as the support for the body but also in haematopoiesis, the manufacture of blood cells that takes place in bone marrow. This is why people who have cancer of the bone marrow almost always die. It is also necessary for protection of vital organs and is needed by the muscles for movement. Skeletal system - the hard structure (bones and cartilages) that provides a frame for the body of an animal. System - a group of physiologically or anatomically related organs or parts; "the body has a system of organs for digestion."Musculoskeletal system - the system of muscles and tendons and ligaments and bones and joints and associated tissues that move the body and maintain its form. Skeletal structure - any structure created by the skeleton of an organism. Endoskeleton - the internal skeleton; bony and cartilaginous structure (especially of vertebrates). Exoskeleton - the exterior protective or supporting structure or shell of many animals (especially invertebrates) including bony or horny parts such as nails or scales or hoofs.

11.2 Bone Growth, Remodeling, & Repair:
Growth takes place at the epiphyseal growth plate of long bones by a finely balanced cycle of cartilage growth, matrix formation and calcification of cartilage that acts as a scaffold for bone formation. This sequence of cellular events constitutes endochondral ossification. Another feature of bone growth is a process of modeling, where bone is being continuously resorbed and replaced by new bone. Modeling is most active during childhood and adolescence, and enables long bones to increase in diameter, to change shape and develop a marrow cavity. Modeling continues throughout adult life with bone restoration equally balanced by bone formation in a healthy skeleton, although in the adult the process is referred to as remodeling. An individual's skeletal growth rate and adult limb bone length have an important genetic determinant, but are influenced by many factors including circulating hormones, nutritional intake, mechanical influences and disease. Growth disturbances result when there is disruption of the normal cellular activity of growth plate chondrocytes and/or the cells of bone. Bone remodeling is a dynamic, lifelong process in which old bone is removed from the skeleton and new bone is added. It consists of two distinct stages – resorption and formation – that involve the activity of special cells called osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Usually, the removal and formation of bone are in balance and maintain skeletal strength and integrity.

11.3 Bones of Axial System:
A multi-axial bone fixation implant includes an elongated member, one or more bone anchor assemblies, and stabilizer members which are fitted within the elongated member. A bone bolt having cancellous threads on one end and machine threads at the opposing end and an enlarged portion between these sections is also provided. The bone bolt is anchored into a bone via the cancellous thread end. The machine threaded end passes through an opening of the elongated member and the stabilizer, and is engaged by a coupled washer and nut. The washer includes an undercut within its oblong aperture, and the nut includes a projecting sleeve. The sleeve is inserted into the washer aperture and expanded, so that the undercut retains the sleeve within the washer without impairing the rotatability or translatability of the nut and washer with respect to each other. When locked by the nut and washer atop the elongated member, the enlarged portion of the bolt is forced against an inside wall of the stabilizer, which is in turn locked against the elongated member. Accordingly, the elongated member is fixed with respect to the bone anchor at one of an infinite number of multi-axial angles. The bones of the Axial System are: The bones of the skull, the bones of the Thorax, &The bones of the Vertebral Column.

11.4 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton consists of the girdles and the skeleton of the limbs. The upper (anterior) limbs are attached to the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the lower (posterior) limbs are attached to the pelvic (hip) girdle. The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle. The Pectoral girdle consists of two shoulder blades (scapulae) and two collar bones (clavicles). These bones articulate with one another, allowing some degree of movement. Shoulder Blades (Scapulae) The shoulder blade is a flat triangular bone which stretches from the shoulder to the vertebral column at the back. On the back side it has a bony ridge for the attachment of the muscles. The bony ridge forms a prominent projection, the acromion, above the shoulder joint. Beneath the collar bone and just on the inside of the shoulder joint, is another bony projection of the shoulder blade, the coracoids process, which also serves for the attachment of muscles. The upper outer corner of the shoulder blade ends in the glenoid cavity into which fits the head of the upper arm bone, forming a ball and socket joint. Collar Bones (Clavicles) each collar bone is rod-shaped and roughly S-shaped. It lies horizontally and articulates with the upper end of the breastbone, right in the middle and front, just above the first rib. The lateral end articulates with the acromium. Collar bones serve as a support for the shoulder blades in front and keep the shoulder blades back so that the arms can hang freely at the sides of the body. They prevent the pectoral girdles from getting out of joint easily and ample movement of the shoulders.

11.5 Articulations:
A joint is the location at which two or more bones make contact. They are constructed to allow movement and provide mechanical support, and are classified structurally and functionally. Joints are mainly classified structurally and functionally. Structural classification is determined by how the bones connect to each other, while functional classification is determined by the degree of movement between the articulating bones. In practice, there is significant overlap between the two types of classifications. Terms ending in the suffix -sis are singular and refer to just one joint, while -ses is the suffix for pluralization.

Chapter 12
12.1 Overview of Muscular System:

The human body contains more than 650 individual muscles which are attached to the skeleton, which provides the pulling power for us to move around. The main job of the muscular system is to provide movement for the body. The muscular system consist of three different types of muscle tissues: skeletal, cardiac, smooth. Each of these different tissues has the ability to contract, which then allows body movements and functions. There are two types of muscles in the system and they are the involuntary muscles, and the voluntary muscles. The muscle in which we are allow to control by ourselves are called the voluntary muscles and the ones we can? Controls are the involuntary muscles. The heart, or the cardiac muscle, is an example of involuntary muscle. (http://library.thinkquest.org/10348/find/content/muscular.html)
12.2 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction:

Skeletal muscle is a type of striated muscle, usually attached to the skeleton. Skeletal muscles are used to create movement, by applying force to bones and joints; via contraction. They generally contract voluntarily (via somatic nerve stimulation), although they can contract involuntarily through reflexes. The whole muscle is wrapped in a special type of connective tissue, epimysium. Calcium ions bind to troponin, exposing myosin binding sites.
12.3 Whole Muscle Contraction:

When we think of a muscle contracting normally, we tend to think of the muscle shortening as it generates force. While it's true that this is a way of muscle contracting, there are many different ways that a muscle can generate force. When a muscle is activated and required to lift a load which is less than the maximum tetanic tension it can generate, the muscle begins to shorten. Contractions that permit the muscle to shorten are referred to as concentric contractions. An example of a concentric contraction in the raising of a weight during a bicep curl.
In concentric contractions, the force generated by the muscle is always less than the muscle's maximum (Po). As the load the muscle is required to lift decreases, contraction velocity increases. This occurs until the muscle finally reaches its maximum contraction velocity, Vmax. By performing a series of constant velocity shortening contractions, a force-velocity relationship can be determined.
During normal activity, muscles are often active while they are lengthening. Classic examples of this are walking, when the quadriceps (knee extensors) are active just after heel strike while the knee flexes, or setting an object down gently (the arm flexors must be active to control the fall of the object).
As the load on the muscle increases, it finally reaches a point where the external force on the muscle is greater than the force that the muscle can generate. Thus even though the muscle may be fully activated, it is forced to lengthen due to the high external load. This is referred to as an eccentric contraction (please remember that contraction in this context does not necessarily imply shortening). There are two main features to note regarding eccentric contractions. First, the absolute tensions achieved are very high relative to the muscle's maximum tetanic tension generating capacity (you can set down a much heavier object than you can lift). Second, the absolute tension is relatively independent of lengthening velocity. This suggests that skeletal muscles are very resistant to lengthening. The basic mechanics of eccentric contractions are still a source of debate since the cross-bridge theory that so nicely describes concentric contractions is not as successful in describing eccentric contractions.
A third type of muscle contraction, isometric contraction, is one in which the muscle is activated, but instead of being allowed to lengthen or shorten, it is held at a constant length. An example of an isometric contraction would be carrying an object in front of you. The weight of the object would be pulling downward, but your hands and arms would be opposing the motion with equal force going upwards. Since your arms are neither raising nor lowering, your biceps will be isometrically contracting.
12.4 Muscular Disorder:

These include spasms and injuries, as well as diseases such as muscular dystrophy and myasthenia gravis.

12.5 Homeostasis:
The property of either an open system or a closed system, especially a living organism, that regulates its internal environment so as to maintain a stable, constant condition. Multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments and regulation mechanisms make homeostasis possible. The concept was created by Claude Bernard, often considered as the father of physiology, and published in 1865.

List of Items used for Lab

*Axon w/ Schwan Cells: Gummy worms, sour worms, and corn holders
* Bony Element- Metal Rods
*Sarcomere- 2 straws tied together with one pulled out.
* Actin- myosin Sliding Filaments: 4 colored straws
* Action Potential- 1 gummy worm
*Propagned Action potential- corn holders w/ jelly beans
*Neurons carrying Action Potential- Raisins
* Sarcolema- 2 straws bound together
* Myosin Cross Bridges- Necklace, with bracelets wrapped around
* Muscle- Pineapple
* Muscle Belly- Multi colored Straw
* Calcium binding to myosin- Straw w/ raisin
* Skin- loaf of French bread

Lab Description

LAB WRITE - UP

This model represents a movable, flexible limb. This model also shows the knee joint, and how it makes the leg move. Neurons and muscle cells are also depicted in this model, as well as their specific function in the leg. The essential elements presented in this model include neurons carrying action potentials that trigger muscle (neurotransmitter), actin-myosin sliding filaments, a bony element that muscle attaches to and moves, and a joint that allows for movement.The neurons presented in this model include axon with schwann cells, movements of charged sodium and potassium ions across the membrane (action potential), and the propagation of action potential along the axon. There are also several aspects of the muscle cells included in this model, such as sarcolemma and T-tubule membranes, a sarcomere, the release of calcium from the Sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium binding to myosin, and myosin cross-bridges that bring actin filaments together. All of these things put together make a simple limb movement.Knee Cap joint – This joint is considered a hinge joint in the body, in which this joint only moves in one direction. Neurotransmitters – These chemicals are used in order to amplify and relay electrical signals between a neuron and another cell. Within the cell, small neurotransmitter molecules are usually found in vesicles. When action potential occurs, and travels to the synapse, depolarization causes the calcium ion channels to open, which leads to the process of exocytosis.Actin-myosin sliding filaments – These filaments are responsible for many types of movement in the muscle. Myosin is the prototype of a protein that converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical energy, in order to create enough force to make the arm move.Bony element that muscle attaches to – The two ends of the muscle belly are attached to a bone by a muscle tendon. The bone that remains stable during movement is known as the origin, and the bone that moves when the muscle belly contracts in known as insertion. A muscle can make a leg move when insertion occurs, and moves toward the origin, as the muscle belly shortens.Axon with Schwann cells – Schwann cells speed up and save energy for the processes of action potentials. This variety of neuroglia mainly provides myelin insulation to axons in the peripheral nervous system of our bodies.Action potential – This process of electrical discharge is very important in order to carry information within and between tissues. This charge travels along the membrane of a cell, and essential in animal and some plant life.Propagation of action potential – Propagation is the interaction between membrane depolarization and sodium channels. Action potential will propagate in unmyelinated axons, and let sodium ions enter the cell by facilitated diffusion.Sarcolemma – This is the cell membrane of a muscle cell which receives and conducts stimuli. This membrane is extendable, and encloses different substances from muscle fiber.Sarcomere – This is the basic unit of a muscle’s myofibril. Sarcomeres are multi-protein complexes which are composed of three different filament systems. The different bands in the sarcomeres allow muscle contraction to occur, and expand and contract in order make the muscle move.Release of Calcium – This process is important because it lets ATP hydrolysis occur, which supplies energy in the actin-myosin complex. When the action potential triggers a myocyte to contract, calcium ions are able to enter. This calcium actually triggers the release of more calcium ions that are stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.Calcium binding to myosin – This calcium is then able to bind to myosin, after the energy is supplied in the actin-myosin complex. This is needed in order to trigger a contraction of the muscle.Myosin cross-bridges – During this cycle, actin combines with myosin, and ATP is used to produce force. This ATP first disconnects the actin from the myosin, and is then hydrolyzed by the myosin in order to produce the energy needed for muscle contraction.

Lab: Model of a working Limb Photos & Video

Below are all photos of the items i used to compose the workable Limb and what they represent.

These images show the finished suppose to be a leg.


You can see the muscle in parts of the leg where it is showing "pinapple"

This is a movie showing how the bread "leg" is able to move and function like a normal knee joint.

Lab Write-Up

1. What is the electrode measuring?An electrode measuring system comprising a measuring electrode (1) and a seat (2) co-operating with the same during the measurement, the measuring electrode comprising one or more electrode surfaces .
2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments? Because they are the easiest to work with and their cells work the best under the uv light.
3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?Sensory neurones (neurons) are unipolar neuron nerve cells within the nervous system responsible for converting external stimuli from the organism's environment into internal electrical motor reflex loops and several forms of involuntary behavior, including pain avoidance. In vertebrates, the term motor neuron (or motoneuron) classically applies to neurons located in the central nervous system (CNS) that project their axons outside the CNS and directly or indirectly control muscles.
4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? No i do not think that the leech is in pain. What is pain? PAIN is when you feel discomfort in your body due to either aches and pains or surgery.
5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab? It was very interesting to see how the cells changed under the uv light, and also i liked hot it walked yout through step by step.
6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab? No i really liked this lab it actually made u feel like you were in class.

Leech Lab Photos

This Photo is a picture of the dyed cell after putting the dye in it and looking at it under the uv light.

This is another photo of a different cell while dyed and viewed under the uv light.

This was the 2nd step in the leech lab. I had to cut open the leech and pin it open

This is a close up of the the cells inside the leech.

CH. 13 & 14 Review

CHAPTER 13& 14 Review

Chapter 13 Nervous System

13.1 Overview of the Nervous System
Nervous tissue is composed of two main cell types: neurons and glial cells. Neurons transmit nerve messages. Glial cells are in direct contact with neurons and often surround them. It s divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. It has three functions, reception of input, integration of data, and generates motor output. Nervous Tissue contains two types of cells, neurons and neuroglia. These two transmit nerve impulses and nourish and support the neurons. The neuron Structure is highly specialized cells that transmit impulses within animals to cause a change in a target cell such as a muscle effectors cell or glandular cell. The cell body of a neuron, called the soma, contains the cell nucleus and the majority of the cytoplasm inclusions and organelles. Radial extensions of the soma cell membrane, called dendrites, extend to other neurons and form the interface where impulses are transmitted from neuron to neuron. One long extension of the soma, called the axon, is the primary conduit through which the neuron transmits impulses to neurons downstream in the signal chain. Axons range in length from around 0.1 millimeters to nearly a meter in length with some neurons in the sciatic nerve. Axons branch into smaller extensions at their terminal end and eventually create synapses with the target cell. The nerve impulses like other communication systems use a sequence of impulses to carry message. The nature of nerve impulses, however, differs entirely from electromagnetic waves and sound waves. In every nerve cell, there is a membrane separating the cytoplasmic fluid from the extracellular solution. The generation of action potentials is mainly due to the changes of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) conductances. The conductance of Na+ ions may change dramatically with the membrane potential as demonstrated by voltage clamp experiments, in which the membrane potential is displaced to a new value and maintained there. The synapse is when a neurotransmitter is released into a synaptic cleft, transmission of a nerve impulse occurs. Integration is the summing of excitatory and inhibitory signals.
13.2The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is made up of the spinal cord and brain. The spinal cord conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and autonomic) to the brain conducts motor information from the brain to our various effectors skeletal muscles cardiac muscle , smooth muscle , glands, serves as a minor reflex center. The brain receives sensory input from the spinal cord as well as from its own nerves (e.g., olfactory and optic nerves) devotes most of its volume (and computational power) to processing its various sensory inputs and initiating appropriate — and coordinated — motor outputs.
13.3The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
This is a deep lying system in the brain is involved in determining emotions. The amygdale determines when a situation deserves the emotion we call fear. The hippocampus is particularly involved in storing and retrieving memories.
13.4 The Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS consists of sensory neurons running from stimulus receptors that inform the CNS of the stimuli & motor neurons running from the CNS to the muscles and glands - called effectors - that take action. The CNS consists of the spinal cord and the brain. The peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the sensory-somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system The Sensory-Somatic Nervous System consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The autonomic nervous system consists of sensory neurons and motor neurons that run between the central nervous system (especially the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata) and various internal organs such as the: heart, lungs , viscera , glands (both exocrine and endocrine). It is responsible for monitoring conditions in the internal environment and bringing about appropriate changes in them. The contraction of both smooth muscle and cardiac muscle is controlled by motor neurons of the autonomic system. The preganglionic motor neurons of the sympathetic system arise in the spinal cord. They pass into sympathetic ganglia which are organized into two chains that run parallel to and on either side of the spinal cord. The preganglionic neuron may do one of three things in the sympathetic ganglion: synapse with postganglionic neurons which then reenter the spinal nerve and ultimately pass out to the sweat glands and the walls of blood vessels near the surface of the body, pass up or down the sympathetic chain and finally synapse with postganglionic neurons in a higher or lower ganglion ,leave the ganglion by way of a cord leading to special ganglia (e.g. the solar plexus) in the viscera. Here it may synapse with postganglionic sympathetic neurons running to the smooth muscular walls of the viscera. However, some of these preganglionic neurons pass right on through this second ganglion and into the adrenal medulla. Here they synapse with the highly-modified postganglionic cells that make up the secretory portion of the adrenal medulla.
13.5 Drug Abuse
Drug abuse has a wide range of definitions related to taking a psychoactive drug or performance enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. Some of the most commonly abused drugs include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methaqualone, and opium alkaloids. Use of these drugs may lead to criminal penalty in addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, both strongly depending on local jurisdiction.[2] Other definitions of drug abuse fall into four main categories: public health definitions, mass communication and vernacular usage, medical definitions, and political and criminal justice definitions.
CHAPTER 14: SENSES

14.1 Sensory Receptors and Sensations
There are four types of sensory receptors chemoreceptor’s, photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and the thermoreceptros. Sensory receptors initiate nerve impulses that are transmitted to the spinal cord and or the brain. Sensation occurs when nerve impulses reach the cerebella cortex. Perception is an interpretation of sensations.
14.2 Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
Proprioceptors are mechanoreceptors involved in reflex actions and they help maintain equilibrium and posture. Cutaneous Receptors are found in the skin, and they are for touch, pressure, temp, and pain.
14.3 Senses of Taste & Smell
Taste and smell are due to chemoreceptor’s that are stimulated by molecules in the environment. Smell and taste problems can have a big impact on our lives. Because these senses contribute substantially to our enjoyment of life, our desire to eat, and be social, smell and taste disorders can be serious. When smell and taste are impaired, life loses some zest. We eat poorly, socialize less, and as a result, feel worse. Many older people experience this problem. Smell and taste belong to our chemical sensing system (chemo sensation). The complicated processes of smelling and tasting begin when molecules released by the substances around us stimulate special nerve cells in the nose, mouth, or throat. These cells transmit messages to the brain, where specific smells or tastes are identified. Olfactory (small nerve) cells are stimulated by the odors around us-the fragrance from a rose, the smell of bread baking. These nerve cells are found in a tiny patch of tissue high up in the nose, and they connect directly to the brain. Gustatory (taste nerve) cells react to food or drink mixed with saliva and is clustered in the taste buds of the mouth and throat. Many of the small bumps that can be seen on the tongue contain taste buds. These surface cells send taste information to nearby nerve fibers, which send messages to the brain.
14.4 Sense of Vision
Eyes are organs that detect light. Different kinds of light-sensitive organs are found in a variety of animals. The simplest eyes do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms but can hardly be called vision. More complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colors. The visual fields of some such complex eyes largely overlap, to allow better depth perception (binocular vision), as in humans; and others are placed so as to minimize the overlap, such as in rabbits and chameleons. e structure of the mammalian eye can be divided into three main layers or tunics whose names reflect their basic functions: the fibrous tunic, the vascular tunic, and the nervous tunic. The fibrous tunic, also known as the deoxiribose cartridge, which is the main carrying point of DNA, is the outer layer of the eyeball consisting of the cornea and sclera. The sclera gives the eye most of its white color. It consists of dense connective tissue filled with the protein collagen to both protect the inner components of the eye and maintain its shape. The vascular tunic, also known as the tunica vasculosa oculi, is the middle vascularized layer which includes the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. The choroid contains blood vessels that supply the retinal cells with necessary oxygen and remove the waste products of respiration. The choroid gives the inner eye a dark color, which prevents disruptive reflections within the eye. The nervous tunic, also known as the tunica nervosa oculi, is the inner sensory which includes the retina.
14.5 Sense of Hearing
Hearing depends on the ear, the cochlear nerve, and the auditory areas of the cerebral cortex. Is one of the traditional five senses. It is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations via an organ such as the ear. The inability to hear is called deafness. In humans and other vertebrates, hearing is performed primarily by the auditory system: vibrations are detected by the ear and transduced into nerve impulses that are perceived by the brain. Like touch, audition requires sensitivity to the movement of molecules in the world outside the organism. Both hearing and touch are types of mechanosensation. The middle ear, separated from the external ear by the eardrum, is an air-filled cavity (tympanic cavity) carved out of the temporal bone. It connects to the throat/nasopharynx via the Eustachian tube. This ear-throat connection makes the ear susceptible to infection (otitis media). The eustachian tube functions to equalize air pressure on both sides of the eardrum. Normally the walls of the tube are collapsed. Swallowing and chewing actions open the tube to allow air in or out, as needed for equalization. Equalizing air pressure ensures that the eardrum vibrates maximally when struck by sound waves.
The Anatomy of the Ear
Adjoining the eardrum are three linked, movable bones called "ossicles," which convert the sound waves striking the eardrum into mechanical vibrations. The smallest bones in the human body, the ossicles are named for their shape. The hammer (malleus) joins the inside of the eardrum. The anvil (incus), the middle bone, connects to the hammer and to the stirrup (stapes). The base of the stirrup, the footplate, fills the oval window which leads to the inner ear. The inner ear consists of a maze of fluid-filled tubes, running through the temporal bone of the skull. The bony tubes, the bony labyrinth, are filled with a fluid called perilymph. Within this bony labyrinth is a second series of delicate cellular tubes, called the membranous labyrinth, filled with the fluid called endolymph. This membranous labyrinth contains the actual hearing cells, the hair cells of the organ of Corti. There are three major sections of the bony labyrinth: The front portion is the snail-shaped cochlea, which functions in hearing.
The rear part, the semicircular canals, helps maintain balance.
Interconnecting the cochlea and the semicircular canals is the vestibule, containing the sense organs responsible for balance, the utricle and saccule.
14.6 Sense of Equilibrium
A sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head.